Executive Function Capacity Research Articles

Executive Functions and High Intellectual Capacity in School-Age: Completely Overlap?

:Objective: To analyze the relationship between the dimensions of the executive function and intellectual capacity in children with high academic performance. Method: an analytical, observational, prospective study with a non-random sample of 104 children between 7 and 11 years of age, belonging to educational institutions in Medellín, Colombia, divided into groups according to the measure of Total Intellectual Capacity (TIC): 1. Those with an average TIC of between 85-115. 2. Children with higher IC or those with scores ranging from 116-129 and 3. Children with TIC of > 130, known as exceptional talents. They are provided executive function tests that are in compliance with bioethical conditions. Results and conclusions: The Intellectual Capacity is not a concept analogous or synonymous to executive function. This study demonstrates that the common element among all participants is high academic performance and an absence of alteration of the executive function. Finally, an adequate executive functioning makes high academic performance possible.

Cognitive capacity limitations and Need for Cognition differentially predict reward-induced cognitive effort expenditure

While psychological, economic, and neuroscientific accounts of behavior broadly maintain that people minimize expenditure of cognitive effort, empirical work reveals how reward incentives can mobilize increased cognitive effort expenditure. Recent theories posit that the decision to expend effort is governed, in part, by a cost-benefit tradeoff whereby the potential benefits of mental effort can offset the perceived costs of effort exertion. Taking an individual differences approach, the present study examined whether one’s executive function capacity, as measured by Stroop interference, predicts the extent to which reward incentives reduce switch costs in a task-switching paradigm, which indexes additional expenditure of cognitive effort. In accordance with the predictions of a cost-benefit account of effort, we found that a low executive function capacity—and, relatedly, a low intrinsic motivation to expend effort (measured by Need for Cognition)—predicted larger increase in cognitive effort expenditure in response to monetary reward incentives, while individuals with greater executive function capacity—and greater intrinsic motivation to expend effort—were less responsive to reward incentives. These findings suggest that an individual’s cost-benefit tradeoff is constrained by the perceived costs of exerting cognitive effort.

Executive Function Capacities, Negative Driving Behavior and Crashes in Young Drivers.

Motor vehicle crashes remain a leading cause of injury and death in adolescents, with teen drivers three times more likely to be in a fatal crash when compared to adults. One potential contributing risk factor is the ongoing development of executive functioning with maturation of the frontal lobe through adolescence and into early adulthood. Atypical development resulting in poor or impaired executive functioning (as in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) has been associated with risky driving and crash outcomes. However, executive function broadly encompasses a number of capacities and domains (e.g., working memory, inhibition, set-shifting). In this review, we examine the role of various executive function sub-processes in adolescent driver behavior and crash rates. We summarize the state of methods for measuring executive control and driving outcomes and highlight the great heterogeneity in tools with seemingly contradictory findings. Lastly, we offer some suggestions for improved methods and practical ways to compensate for the effects of poor executive function (such as in-vehicle assisted driving devices). Given the key role that executive function plays in safe driving, this review points to an urgent need for systematic research to inform development of more effective training and interventions for safe driving among adolescents.

Individual differences in perceptual adaptation to phonetic categories: Categorization gradiency and cognitive abilities

We examine whether listeners flexibly adapt to unfamiliar speech patterns such as those encountered in foreign-accented English vowels. In these cases, the relative informativity of acoustic dimensions (spectral quality vs. duration) can be changed such that the most informative dimension (spectral quality) is no longer informative, but the role of the secondary cue (duration) is enhanced. We further test whether listeners’ adaptive strategies are related to individual differences in utilizations of secondary cues (measured by categorization gradiency) and cognitive abilities. Native English listeners (N = 36) listened to continuum of vowels /ɛ/ and /æ/ (as in head and had) varying spectral and duration values to complete a perceptual adaptation task, a visual analogue scaling (VAS) task, and were given cognitive ability tasks examining executive function capacities. Results showed that listeners mostly used spectral quality to signal vowel category at baseline, but rapidly adapted by up-weighting reliance on duration when spectral quality was no longer informative. The VAS task showed substantial individual differences in categorization gradiency with more gradient listeners using a secondary cue more, but gradiency was not linked to degree of adaptation. Finally, results of cognitive ability tasks revealed that individual differences in inhibitory control, but not the other cognitive abilities, correlated with the amount of perceptual adaptation.

LOS PREDICTORES MOTORES DE LA DEFICIENCIA DE LAS FUNCIONES EJECUTIVAS EN ANCIANOS CON LA ENFERMEDAD DE ALZHEIMER

Objetivo: Investigar las relaciones entre funciones ejecutivas y capacidad funcional y determinar los predictores motores de la deficiencia de las funciones ejecutivas en ancianos con enfermedad de Alzheimer (EA). Metodología: 24 ancianos con EA fueron evaluados para estimar las funciones ejecutivas y los predictores motores. Se utilizó el análisis estadístico descriptivo, correlación de Pearson y regresión lineal múltiple. Resultados: Las funciones ejecutivas se relacionaron con la flexibilidad (r=0,54), equilibrio (r=0,48), agilidad y movilidad (r =-0,41). El análisis de regresión apuntó equilibrio y flexibilidad como predictores motores de la deficiencia de las funciones ejecutivas. Conclusiones: El prejuicio del equilibrio y la flexibilidad pueden predecir los prejuicios en funciones ejecutivas de ancianos con EA.

0177 THE TRAIT OF INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION CONTRIBUTES TO SUSTAINED PERFORMANCE ON PLANNING AND SEQUENCING ABILITIES DURING SLEEP DEPRIVATION

The existence of consistent trait-like inter-individual differences in the ability to sustain objective psychomotor vigilance and subjective alertness during periods of sleep deprivation has been well established. However, it has proven difficult to identify reliable cognitive, biological, or demographic variables that predict this capacity. In several different studies, our lab has found that the trait of introversion-extraversion appears to be predictive of this capacity, particularly for psychomotor vigilance. Here we explore whether this trait also predicts the ability to sustain higher-level executive functions of planning and sequencing abilities. 17 males and 5 females (Mage= 25.05, SD= 3.98) participated in a double-blind drug study (placebo N= 11; caffeine 200 mg every two hours between 0100 and 0700, N= 11) during 3 nights of sleep deprivation. Participants completed the Tower of London (TOL), a measure of planning and sequencing, after 4, 52, and 76 hours of total sleep deprivation. Baseline measures of personality traits (NEO-PI-R inventory), state and trait anger (STAXI-2), and odor identification ability (UPSIT) were collected before sleep loss. Stepwise linear regression was conducted to predict change in TOL performance, as measured by throughput (i.e., the average number of correct bead placements per minute), above and beyond the effects of caffeine. At 52 hours of sleep deprivation, better sustained TOL throughput was predicted by lower Extraversion (higher introversion; β=-.41, p=.048), which was above and beyond the effects of caffeine (β=.32, p=.12). At 76 hours of wakefulness, higher TOL throughput was predicted again by lower Extraversion (higher introversion; β=-.50, p=.01) as well as higher Conscientiousness (β=.40, p=.04), above and beyond the non-significant effect of caffeine (β=.16, p=.38). Consistent with prior work on psychomotor vigilance, the trait of introversion-extraversion was also predictive of the ability to sustain executive function capacities of planning and sequencing after two and three nights of sleep deprivation. Supported by the Knowledge Preservation Program at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research administered by the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education.

Maternal Responsiveness as a Predictor of Self-Regulation Development and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Symptoms Across Preschool Ages.

Preschool-age "hot" executive function capacity (i.e. reward-related effortful control) represents an early kind of self-regulation that is involved in social adjustment development as well as the development of subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Early self-regulation development might be malleable by responsive parenting. We analyzed whether maternal responsiveness/sensitivity predicts reward-related control (RRC) development within the preschool period, and whether RRC mediates a negative link between maternal responsiveness and ADHD symptoms. A sample of 125 preschoolers and their families were seen at the ages of 4 and 5 years. Maternal responsiveness/sensitivity was assessed via home observations, RRC by neuropsychological tasks, and ADHD symptoms by a structured clinical parent interview. Maternal responsiveness/sensitivity predicted RRC development. The negative link between maternal responsiveness/sensitivity at 4 years and ADHD symptoms at 5 years was mediated by RRC performance at 5 years. Preschoolers showing ADHD symptoms combined with low RRC capacity in particular might benefit from responsive/sensitive parenting.

To boost or to CRUNCH? Effect of effortful encoding on episodic memory in older adults is dependent on executive functioning.

It is essential to develop effective interventions aimed at ameliorating age-related cognitive decline. Previous studies found that effortful encoding benefits episodic memory in older adults. However, to date it is unclear whether this benefit is different for individuals with strong versus weak executive functioning (EF). Fifty-one older adults were recruited and divided into low (N = 26) and high (N = 25) functioning groups, based on their EF capacity. All participants performed a semantic and a perceptual incidental encoding task. Each encoding task was performed under four difficulty levels to establish different effort levels. Encoding was followed by a recognition task. Results showed that the high EF group benefitted from increased effort in both tasks. However, the low EF group only showed a beneficial effect under low levels of effort. Results are consistent with the Compensation-Related Utilization of Neural Circuits Hypothesis (CRUNCH) and suggest that future research directed at developing efficient memory strategies to reduce negative cognitive aging effects should take individual cognitive differences among older adults into account, such as differences in EF.

Executive functions deficits impair extinction of generalization of fear of movement-related pain.

Generalization of fear of movement-related pain across novel but similar movements can lead to fear responses to movements that are actually not associated with pain. The peak-shift effect describes a phenomenon whereby particular novel movements elicit even greater fear responses than the original pain-provoking movement (CS+), because they represent a more extreme version of the CS+. There is great variance in the propensity to generalize as well as the speed of extinction learning when these novel movements are not followed by pain. It can be argued that this variance may be associated with executive function capacity, as individuals may be unable to intentionally inhibit fear responses. This study examined whether executive function capacity contributes to generalization and extinction of generalization as well as peak-shift of conditioned fear of movement-related pain and expectancy. Healthy participants performed a proprioceptive fear conditioning task. Executive function tests assessing updating, switching, and inhibition were used to predict changes in (extinction of) fear of movement-related pain and pain expectancy generalization. Low inhibitory capacity was associated with slower extinction of generalized fear of movement-related pain and pain expectancy. Evidence was found in favor of an area-shift, rather than a peak-shift effect, which implies that the peak conditioned fear response extended to, but did not shift to a novel stimulus. Participants with low inhibitory capacity may have difficulties withholding fear responses, leading to a slower decrease of generalized fear over time. The findings may be relevant to inform treatments. Low inhibitory capacity is not associated with slower generalization, but extinction of fear generalization. Fear elicited by a novel safe movement, situated outside the CS+/- continuum on the CS+ side, can be as strong as to the original stimulus predicting the pain-onset.

Externalizing Behavior Problems in Preschoolers: Impact of an Inhibition Training

Background and objective: Externalizing behavior problems are a major cause of consultation in preschoolers but interventions available at this young age are scarce. Recently, researchers developed inhibition training and showed a significant improvement of executive function capacities in typically developing preschoolers and also a positive impact on externalizing behavior problems. In this research, we wanted to replicate this study in a clinical population. Methodology: Thirty-four preschoolers presenting a high level of externalizing behavior problems took part in an assessment of executive function capacities and behavior, before and after a 8 week period during which half of the children received an inhibition training also involving metacognition (two 45-min sessions per week) while the others (matched on gender and age) were put on a waiting-list. Results and conclusion: Globally, the intervention lead to significant externalizing behavior problems improvement observed both on parental ratings and in an observational paradigm. As regards inhibition capacities, children who started the intervention with a lower level of inhibition benefitted the most from the intervention. Although increase in executive functions was mainly observed in typically developing children, larger behavioral improvements were observed in the externalizing behavior problems population.

Differential Impact of an Executive-Function and a Social Cognition Training on Preschoolers with Externalizing Behavior Problems

In preschoolers, externalizing behavior problems are a primary cause of consultation. It is known that externalizing behavior (EB) could result from individual and environmental risk factors. Individual risk factors included notably social cognition (SC) and executive functions (EF). A high level of EB has usually been related to dysfunction in SC and to poor skills in EF. The aim of the present experimental study is to compare the impact of two very targeted child-oriented trainings in the increasing of social competence and decreasing of EB in preschoolers. One training targeted SC abilities while the second one targeted EF capacities. These two trainings were compared on 48 preschoolers presenting clinically relevant levels of EB. The comparison of those results highlighted how each training could help preschoolers with EB in their behavior, emotion regulation and social adjustment. In comparison to a waiting-list control-group, the two trainings were effective in decreasing EB and differentiated impacts of the two trainings were obtained on different dimensions of profiles of social competence and emotion regulation. Results are discussed for their research and clinical implications.

Randomized controlled trial of a web-based multi-modal therapy program for executive functioning in children and adolescents with unilateral cerebral palsy

Purpose state: Determine the efficacy of Move-it-to-improve-it (Mitii™), a multi-modal web-based program, in improving Executive Function (EF) in children with unilateral cerebral palsy (UCP).Method: Participants (n = 102) were matched in pairs then randomized to: intervention (Mitii™ for 20 weeks; n = 51; 26 males; mean age = 11 years 8 months (SD = 2 years 4 months); Full Scale IQ = 84.65 (SD = 15.19); 28 left UCP; GMFCS-E&R (I = 20, II = 31) or waitlist control (n = 50; 25 males; mean age = 11 years 10 months (SD = 2 years 5 months); Full Scale IQ = 80.75 (SD = 19.81); 20 left UCP; GMFCS-E&R (I = 25, II = 25). Mitii™ targeted working memory (WM), visual processing (VP), upper limb co-ordination and physical activity. EF capacity was assessed: attentional control (DSB; WISC-IV); cognitive flexibility (inhibition and number-letter sequencing DKEFS); goal setting (D-KEFs Tower Test); and information processing (WISC-IV Symbol Search and Coding). EF performance was assessed via parent report (BRIEF). Groups were compared at 20 weeks using linear regression (SPSS 21).Results: There were no significant between group differences in attentional control (DSB; p = 0.20;CI= −0.40,1.87); cognitive flexibility (Inhibition, p = 0.34; CI= −0.73,2.11; number/letter sequencing, p = 0.17; CI= −0.55,2.94); problem solving (Tower; p = 0.28; CI= −0.61,2.09), information processing (Symbol; p = 0.08; CI= −0.16, 2.75; Coding; p = 0.07; CI= −0.12,2.52) or EF performance (p = 0.13; CI= −10.04,1.38).Conclusion:In a large RCT, MitiiTM did not lead to significant improvements on measures of EF or parent ratings of EF performance in children with UCP.Implications for rehabilitationA large RCT of the multi-modal web based training; Move It to Improve It (MitiiTM) improves motor processing, visual perception, and physical capacity but does demonstrate statistically significant improvements or clinical significance in executive function in children with mild to moderate unilateral cerebral palsy (UCP).MitiiTM training completed by an intervention group was highly variable with few children reaching the target dosage of 60 h. Technical issues including server and internet connectively problems lead to disengagement with the program.Web-based training delivered in the home has the potential to increase therapy dose and accessibility, however, MitiiTM needs to be tailored to include tasks involving goal-setting, more complex problem solving using multi-dimensional strategies, mental flexibility, switching between two cognitively demanding tasks, and greater novelty in order to increase the cognitive component and challenge required to drive changes in EF.

Resting-state qEEG predicts rate of second language learning in adults

Understanding the neurobiological basis of individual differences in second language acquisition (SLA) is important for research on bilingualism, learning, and neural plasticity. The current study used quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG) to predict SLA in college-aged individuals. Baseline, eyes-closed resting-state qEEG was used to predict language learning rate during eight weeks of French exposure using an immersive, virtual scenario software. Individual qEEG indices predicted up to 60% of the variability in SLA, whereas behavioral indices of fluid intelligence, executive functioning, and working-memory capacity were not correlated with learning rate. Specifically, power in beta and low-gamma frequency ranges over right temporoparietal regions were strongly positively correlated with SLA. These results highlight the utility of resting-state EEG for studying the neurobiological basis of SLA in a relatively construct-free, paradigm-independent manner.

Neurocognitive insight and objective cognitive functioning in schizophrenia

Neurocognitive impairment is a core component of schizophrenia affecting everyday functioning; the extent to which individuals with schizophrenia show awareness of neurocognitive impairment (neurocognitive insight) is unclear. This study investigated neurocognitive insight and examined the cross-sectional relationships between neurocognitive insight and objective neurocognition and functional capacity performance in a large outpatient sample.214 participants with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders completed measures of neurocognition, functional capacity, and self-reported neurocognitive problems. Latent profile analysis classified participants with regard to neuropsychological performance and self-report of neurocognitive problems. The resulting classes were then compared on executive functioning performance, functional capacity performance, and psychiatric symptom severity.More than three quarters of the sample demonstrated objective neurocognitive impairment (global deficit score≥0.50). Among the participants with neurocognitive impairment, 54% were classified as having “impaired” neurocognitive insight (i.e., reporting few neurocognitive problems despite having objective neurocognitive impairment). Participants with impaired vs. intact neurocognitive insight did not differ on executive functioning measures or measures of functional capacity or negative symptom severity, but those with intact neurocognitive insight reported higher levels of positive and depressive symptoms.A substantial portion of individuals with schizophrenia and objectively measured neurocognitive dysfunction appear unaware of their deficits. Patient self-report of neurocognitive problems, therefore, is not likely to reliably assess neurocognition. Difficulty self-identifying neurocognitive impairment appears to be unrelated to executive functioning, negative symptoms, and functional capacity. For those with intact neurocognitive insight, improving depressive and psychotic symptoms may be a valuable target to reduce illness burden.

Physical Activity Is Positively Associated with Episodic Memory in Aging.

Aging is associated with performance reductions in executive function and episodic memory, although there is substantial individual variability in cognition among older adults. One factor that may be positively associated with cognition in aging is physical activity. To date, few studies have objectively assessed physical activity in young and older adults, and examined whether physical activity is differentially associated with cognition in aging. Young (n=29, age 18-31 years) and older adults (n=31, ages 55-82 years) completed standardized neuropsychological testing to assess executive function and episodic memory capacities. An experimental face-name relational memory task was administered to augment assessment of episodic memory. Physical activity (total step count and step rate) was objectively assessed using an accelerometer, and hierarchical regressions were used to evaluate relationships between cognition and physical activity. Older adults performed more poorly on tasks of executive function and episodic memory. Physical activity was positively associated with a composite measure of visual episodic memory and face-name memory accuracy in older adults. Physical activity associations with cognition were independent of sedentary behavior, which was negatively correlated with memory performance. Physical activity was not associated with cognitive performance in younger adults. Physical activity is positively associated with episodic memory performance in aging. The relationship appears to be strongest for face-name relational memory and visual episodic memory, likely attributable to the fact that these tasks make strong demands on the hippocampus. The results suggest that physical activity relates to cognition in older, but not younger adults.

Neuropsychological Characteristics and Their Association with Higher-Level Functional Capacity in Parkinson's Disease

Background/Aims: Little is known about the relationship between cognitive functions and higher-level functional capacity (e.g. intellectual activity, social role, and social participation) in Parkinson's disease (PD). The purpose of this study was to clarify neuropsychological characteristics and their association with higher-level functional capacity in PD patients. Methods: Participants were 31 PD patients and 23 demographically matched healthy controls. Neuropsychological tests were conducted. One year later, a questionnaire survey evaluated higher-level functional capacity in daily living. Results: The PD group scored significantly lower than the control group in all cognitive domains, particularly executive function and processing. Executive function, processing speed, language, and memory were significantly correlated with higher-level functional capacity in PD patients. Stepwise regression showed that only executive function (Trail Making Test-B), together with disease severity (HY stage), predicted the higher-level functional capacity. Conclusion: Our findings provide evidence of a relationship between executive function and higher-level functional capacity in patients with PD.

Training executive function in preschoolers reduce externalizing behaviors

Abstract In this research we want to observe, in preschool children, and with an experimental design, whether a cognitive intervention aiming at enhancing inhibition capacities would have an impact not only on executive functions but also lead to behavioral changes with a decrease in external behavioral problems (EB). Forty-seven normally developed preschoolers (mean age of 60 months) took part in a pretest assessing executive function (EF) capacities (attention, motor and cognitive inhibition, flexibility and working memory) and behavior (questionnaires and an observational paradigm for externalizing behaviors). Children were then randomly allocated to either a control ( n =23) or an experimental group ( n =24). Both groups participated in 2 45-min sessions per week for 8 weeks. Children from the control group took part in handicraft sessions and children from the experimental group received inhibition-training sessions. The latter consisted of a series of games/exercises aimed at increasing the different components of inhibition functions (interrupt an ongoing response, impulsivity management, inhibition of a predominant response, inhibition of external distractors) and involving the use of fictional characters aimed at improving the child’s metacognition relative to those functions. At the end of the intervention, every child from each group took part in the post-test. We observed significant differences between control and experimental groups, with the latter group performing better on inhibition, attention and working memory measures. More importantly, differences were also measured on behavioral measures of inattention, and on negative reaction in an observational paradigm. We thus show that it is possible to enhance EF capacities in preschoolers and that this has an impact on EB.

The impact of motivation and teachers' autonomy support on children's executive functions.

The present study investigates the interplay of executive functions, motivation, and teacher’s autonomy support in school context. In a cross-sectional study design 208 students from different school types completed a standardized motivation questionnaire and processed two executive function tasks. All teachers who teach these students were asked about their autonomy supporting behavior by a standardized test. Multilevel analyses assessed the effects of the student’s motivation and their teachers’ autonomy support on student’s executive functions. Our results show considerable relationships between these variables: high executive function capacities came along with teacher’s autonomy support and student’s intrinsic motivation styles, whereas low executive function capacities were related to external regulation styles. The results indicate the importance of autonomy support in school instruction and disclose the need to popularize the self-regulation approach.

The interplay between sleep and emotion regulation: conceptual framework empirical evidence and future directions.

Emotions are biologically-based responses that help an organism meet challenges and opportunities, and involve changes in subjective experience, behavior, and physiology. Emotions arise when something important to us is at stake. Although many factors have been associated with healthy emotional regulation, the role of sleep in this process has been largely ignored. Recent studies, however, have begun to delineate how sleep critically affects emotional functioning. Nighttime sleep affects daytime mood, emotional reactivity and the capacity to regulate positive and negative emotions; conversely, daytime experiences affect sleep. Hence, there is a complex interplay between sleep and emotional regulation. The objective of this article is to examine this interplay in adults. This objective is addressed by utilizing a framework that identifies key aspects of the relationship between sleep and emotion. We propose that the connectivity between the emotional centers of the brain--the prefontal cortex and the amygdala--is in part dependent on the homeostatic sleep system such that connectivity between these brain networks is higher when rested and lower when sleep deprived. High connectivity drives more efficient executive functioning, while a disconnect leads to poor executive functioning capacity including emotional reactivity and impulsivity. The cognitive effects of the homeostatic system are couple with the mood regulation effects of the circadian system together dictating the degree to which one experiences emotional regulation or dysregulation. Further, the affective brain systems of individuals with clinical symptomology and/or pathology are suggested to be more vulnerable to homeostatic pressure and circadian lows or misalignment resulting in increased affective clinical symptomology. We review empirical evidence that supports this framework and explore the implications of this framework. Finally, we describe future directions for this type of work.

An Integrated Model of Executive Functioning is Helpful for Understanding ADHD and Associated Disorders

Objective: The aim of this study is to test the discriminative capacity of executive function (EF) tasks to better define the cognitive functioning of children with ADHD and comorbidities. Method: One hundred four children were presented with a battery of new EF tasks and a rating scale filled out by parents. Results: Preliminary analysis of the neuropsychological tasks revealed the presence of five factors: Speed of Processing, Inhibition, Planning, Execution, and Retrospective Memory. All children with ADHD were impaired in Execution (a measure describing the capacity to achieve a goal). ADHD-only children were specifically impaired in Planning, while ADHD + reading disorder (RD) children were impaired in Speed of Processing and Retrospective Memory. Children with ADHD + oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) did not show impairment in any other EF domains. The five EF processes correlated with the EF Questionnaire. Conclusion: The present study describes different cognitive profiles in children with ADHD with or without comorbid disorders using neuropsychological EF measures.