School Exclusion Research Articles

Factors associated with the school exclusion gap for children with social work involvement: A retrospective cohort study using national administrative data

Abstract Children who receive social care services are known to have higher exclusion rates than those without social care involvement. However, there is limited evidence on which groups of children are most at risk of this exclusion gap. This article reports on a retrospective analysis of administrative data from the National Pupil Database in England, covering two age-based cohorts of children (n = 1.2 million) who took standardized tests in 2019. Children receiving social care services within the previous five years were compared with those with no social care involvement, focusing on rates of exclusion within a 12 month period. Regression models were estimated to examine how the relative likelihood of exclusion was associated with a range of covariates, including demographic characteristics, special educational needs and disabilities, categories of social care need, and various aspects of provision. Results showed that the gap in exclusions was wider for children with multiple episodes of social care involvement, some—but not all—types of special educational needs and disabilities, and for certain categories of social care needs. Implications for policy and practice are discussed, particularly with respect to children with behavioural difficulties.

Expectations regarding school decreases emotional distress among college students in Western China: the buffering role of physical exercises

BackgroundCollege students in Western China face unique economic, cultural, and educational environments, yet limited studies have specifically investigated the factors or interventions concerning emotional distress within this population.AimThis study aimed to explore whether school belongingness mediates the relationship between expectations regarding school and emotional distress among college students in Western China, and whether physical exercise moderates this mediation.MethodsEmploying a cross-sectional design, 1,063 college students in Xinjiang, China were recruited for this study. A self-administered electronic questionnaire assessed expectations regarding school, school belongingness, physical exercise, anxiety, and depression. Structural equation modeling was utilized to analyze mediating and moderating effects.ResultsExpectations regarding school was negatively associated with emotional distress. School exclusion and school acceptance fully mediated the effect of expectations regarding school on emotional distress. Physical exercise moderated the mediating effect of school exclusion, but not that of school acceptance.ConclusionExpectations regarding school and school belongingness, particularly the exclusion component, emerge as pivotal factors influencing emotional distress among college students in Western China. Furthermore, physical exercise presents itself as a promising targeted intervention for alleviating emotional distress within this demographic.

Parents’ perceptions of power in the school exclusion process examined through Arnstein's ladder of participation

ABSTRACT Parents have highlighted that they felt powerless in the school exclusion process because school staff speak louder and have all the authority. This study draws on Arnstein's ladder of citizen participation to analyse parents’ experiences of the school exclusion process. At the bottom of Arnstein's ladder is nonparticipation; citizens cannot participate in decision-making in this domain. The following domain is tokenism. This is where citizens have a voice and are heard, but their views are not considered. The final domain at the top of the ladder is citizen control; this is where citizens have varying degrees of decision-making power. This paper uses data from semi-structured interviews with parents to understand their children's experiences of school, measures that schools implemented to prevent exclusions, and how they experienced the school exclusion process. The data showed that parents could feel manipulated in the school exclusion process when they were involved too late when school staff had already decided to exclude their children. Conversely, some parents felt that they had the power to influence decisions and valued working in partnership with school staff to inform the sanction their child would receive and avoid permanent exclusion. It is concluded that not all parents have equal influence in the school exclusion process. The findings of this research highlight the need to make sure that all parents are given the opportunity to participate in the exclusion process to ensure that the education system is fairer and more inclusive.

What is Known About LGBTQ Youth and Exclusionary Discipline? A Scoping Review

ABSTRACT Exclusionary discipline is a major contributor to school pushout and the school-to-prison pipeline, which criminalizes educational environments through processes and practices that often result in the incarceration of youth. While there is extensive evidence on the pathways and impacts of exclusionary discipline for students of color, its impacts on LGBTQ youth are understudied. This scoping review aims to identify and synthesize the existing empirical research concerning exclusionary school discipline of LGBTQ youth. Following the six-stage approach outlined by the Joanna Briggs Institute, an electronic search was conducted from a total of nine databases. Our search yielded a total of 740 results; of those, 10 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final review. Findings indicate that LGBTQ youth, especially girls, experience exclusionary discipline at disproportionate rates. These youth are often disciplined as part of their own victimization, by both peers and adults in schools. While race and the need for intersectional understanding of LGBTQ exclusionary discipline were often touched on, most studies do not include race in their analysis. Future research that examines LGBTQ exclusionary discipline through an intersectional lens is needed.

‘They don’t even teach you how to make money!’ What insights can marginalised young people provide into developing inclusive education policy?

Using data from a qualitative study exploring the intersections of school exclusion, mental health, and involvement in criminal behaviour, we explore young people’s experience of schools to inform consideration of how schools might be modified to help improve mental health and engagement, and take a more proactive role in safeguarding young people from contextual risks. We draw on sociological theories considering how inequity and disadvantage may be reproduced. Poor experiences of school create disengagement, perpetuate deep structural inequalities, and can act as a motivating force to gain status and money through the illicit economy. Broadening the focus in schools, away from the narrow pursuit of academia, to include more group-based and project-based learning; placing greater priority on life skills and vocational training; and focussing more on developing a sense of belonging through sports and arts may benefit all students, particularly those most at risk of exclusion. If the education system is to build stronger engagement with the most marginalised students, it must actively support them to achieve their priority to find (legitimate) means of earning money.

Understanding school discipline and exclusion in Australia: key issues

AbstractExclusionary school discipline is an emerging field of research in Australia, whereas it is more established in contexts such as the United States and United Kingdom. In this article we, therefore, seek to understand how exclusionary school discipline has been examined by Australian education researchers working across a range of disciplines. We conducted a critical literature review, analysing research directly and indirectly investigating school discipline and exclusion and (1) disability; (2) racialisation; (3) teacher safety and relationships with students; and 4) non-punitive responses to ‘student disruption’. The insights from this body of research demonstrate the need for further research that seeks to understand exclusionary school discipline within longer histories of settler colonialism and influenced by structural factors such as racism and ableism. Further, there are opportunities for research that engages the collective capacity of schools and communities in imagining radically different approaches to school and inclusion, that transform injustices and build solidarities.

School exclusion policies across the UK: convergence and divergence

ABSTRACT Previous comparative research has revealed recent high and rising school exclusion rates in England and a contrasting picture of much lower and reducing rates in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. In this paper, we examine findings from new research into school exclusion policies across the four countries of the UK. This interrogates for the first time how the problem of ‘school exclusion’ is framed within these four distinct policy contexts. We take up the question of how policy levers and drivers may shape patterns and trends in permanent exclusion and suspension/temporary exclusion. This analysis reveals that, despite broad agreement in policy on a need to reduce exclusion and increase equity across the UK jurisdictions, there are diverging policy stances on the purposes of exclusion, responsibilities of schools and the role of the state overall in bringing about change. We conclude that deeper critical engagement with policy contexts is a vital element in understanding the persistence of school exclusion itself but also the differential rates of exclusion across the UK.

Formal school exclusions over the educational lifecourse in Wales

ABSTRACT For the first time, this paper takes a dynamic approach to studying formal school exclusions and their association with educational outcomes. In particular, we study every instance of school exclusions over a key part of a pupil’s education lifecourse between Year 6 (end of primary school) to Year 11 (end of secondary school). Using a single population cohort of all pupils in maintained schools in Wales, we show that the frequency of formal school exclusions varies over pupils’ lifecourse and identify five main exclusion trajectories, reflecting these variations over time, as follows: no exclusions, low level exclusions, early rise in exclusions, high-level Year 11 exclusions and late rise in exclusions. These general trajectories may suggest differences in the underlying reason for school exclusions that are not necessarily evident in pupils’ official records or as reported by individual schools. We also show the differential impact of these exclusion trajectories on later educational outcomes. Highlighting these different trajectories may be useful to policymakers and practitioners when developing national and local guidance around school exclusions. They may also reflect unknown biases in the likelihood that a pupil gets excluded from school, often a major area of concern in debates around inclusive education.

The political economy of school exclusion in Northern Ireland: the intersection of perspectives from mainstream education, alternative provision and an official education body

ABSTRACT This paper examines the context of school exclusion in Northern Ireland. In doing so, we explore the political economy of exclusion, focusing in particular on the intersection of perspectives between four key stakeholder groups: principals (n = 7) and teachers (n = 31) in mainstream schools, representatives from an official education body (n = 8), and staff from Education Other Than at School (EOTAS) Centres (n = 4) who provide alternative education for young people who have been permanently excluded from mainstream schools or who have social, emotional, behavioural and well-being needs that cannot be met in mainstream schools. The study used qualitative data from individual and small group interviews and focus groups with the stakeholders mentioned above. School exclusion has been under-researched in Northern Ireland and this paper addresses this gap. Additionally, official exclusion data point to relatively low levels of temporary and permanent exclusions compared with the other jurisdictions of the UK, though why this is so remains unclear. The analysis draws attention to the use and prevalence of informal or unofficial school exclusions; claims of limited official support for schools; restricted collaboration between mainstream schools and alternative education; and a general consensus around limited resources to support pupils at risk and to train teachers.

The costs of school exclusion: a case study analysis of England, Wales and Scotland

ABSTRACT The cost of permanent exclusion from school is an issue that has been gaining increasing attention in recent years. However, efforts to estimate these costs have mainly focused on those incurred after the student has been excluded, such as those for alternative education providers. Less focus has been given to costs associated with processes leading up to exclusion, including the time spent by school staff and other professionals (e.g. counsellors, special education needs specialists) in efforts to prevent exclusion, or to mitigate negative outcomes. Moreover, the unpaid time and effort spent by parents/carers during this process often go unaccounted for, despite significant financial implications from foregone productivity and income. In this paper, we use a series of five case studies based on in-depth interviews with different stakeholders from England, Scotland and Wales to illustrate the potential involvement of the professionals and parents/carers in the process leading up to – or the measures preventing – permanent exclusion, and estimate the associated costs. It is important to highlight these costs for future resource planning, as well as to present a more comprehensive picture of the true costs of permanent exclusion.

Psychosocial disorder or rational action? Contrasting professional and pupil narratives of school exclusion

ABSTRACT Over the last five years, the Excluded Lives team has been examining the patterns and processes of school exclusions across the UK in order to identify those factors which may exacerbate or reduce exclusions. One of most the striking aspects is the contrasting accounts of the causes of exclusion provided by professionals and pupils. Drawing on interview data from 29 school-based professionals and 16 excluded pupils in Wales, the paper analyses the different discourses which underpin their respective narratives. Professional accounts draw on discourses of vulnerability – seeing their pupils’ behaviour as symptomatic of some underlying malaise, typically as victims of adverse socio-economic and familial circumstances. Pupils’ accounts, on the other hand, are not about underlying ‘causes’, but about the specific circumstances of the ‘offence’. In their accounts, they are neither vulnerable nor victims. Indeed, they present their actions as rational – sometimes even heroic – responses to their situation. In drawing out this contrast, the paper does not seek to privilege one type of narrative over another – for both contain ‘truths’. However, it concludes that the hierarchy of credibility might need to be rebalanced in favour of the pupil if pupil-professional dialogue is to progress and trust be fostered.

School Suspension and Expulsion: Policy Statement.

Exclusionary school discipline practices-ie, suspension and expulsion-represent some of the most severe consequences a school district can implement for unacceptable student behavior. Suspension and expulsion were traditionally used for student behaviors that caused serious harm, such as bringing a weapon to school. Currently, the most common indications for exclusionary school discipline are for behaviors that are neither violent nor criminal. There is little evidence that exclusionary school discipline practices make schools safer or deter future misbehavior. American Indian/Alaska Native students, Black students, students whose caregivers have low socioeconomic status, male students, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer or questioning students, and students with disabilities are disproportionately disciplined with suspension and expulsion. In addition, exclusionary school discipline in the preschool period can be harmful to early childhood development. Children and adolescents affected by exclusionary school discipline are at higher risk for dropping out of high school and for involvement with the juvenile justice system. Both of those experiences are associated with a worse profile of physical and mental health outcomes. A multidisciplinary and trauma-informed approach to reducing exclusionary school discipline practices is described. Recommendations are provided at both the practice level for pediatric health care providers and at the systems level for both pediatric health care providers and educators.

Awaiting further consideration

School exclusion is a relatively rare occurrence, but there is a disproportionate over-representation of students with special educational needs (SEN) being excluded from mainstream classrooms, both formally and through hidden practices. Venturing from the classroom into the world of educational research for my doctoral study, I came across further potentially exclusionary practices as questions were raised about the capacity of students labelled as SEN to provide voluntary informed consent. In my contribution to this special issue, I use poetry to reflect on ethical issues in my study and the need to challenge perceptions of the vulnerable in order to fight for their rights to be heard and participate equitably in all aspects of society.

Exploring longitudinal patterns of absences, exclusions and attainment in secondary schools in Scotland

Objective and ApproachWe seek to understand the impacts that absences and exclusions have on educational outcomes in secondary school pupils in Scotland. We adopt a Multilevel Structural Equations Modelling approach to analyse data from the newly linked administrative database created under the “Children’s Lives and Outcomes” research strand of the Scottish Centre for Administrative Data Research (SCADR), which includes data from Education Analytical Services (Scottish Government) and Public Health Scotland (NHS) from the period between 2007-2019, and the 2001 and 2011 Census. ResultsWhile exclusions, absences and attainment are known to be associated with each other and with individual and structural factors, less is known about how these phenomena play out over time in the Scottish education system. Our analyses focus on a particular cohort of students followed up over their entire schooling period to understand how longitudinal patterns of school absences and exclusions, and other relevant individual and structural factors are interrelated over time. We show that variation across schools and local authorities in these outcomes is significant and substantial in Scotland. We also analyse the impact of these longitudinal patterns on attainment, with an emphasis on mental health wellbeing and familial socioeconomic circumstances. Conclusions and ImplicationsBy elucidating further these relationships and interrelationships, we expect our findings to be pertinent to policymakers and practitioners, contributing to inform strategies, policies and/or interventions to reduce the inequalities in exclusions, absences and attainment, ultimately helping to improve children and young people’s school experiences and outcomes.

Do children receiving care and support have higher rates of school exclusion than their peers?

The Children, Young People and Education Committee recently held an inquiry to scrutinise the Welsh Government’s progress in delivering its Programme for Government Commitment to ‘explore radical reform of current services for children looked after and care leavers’. A key observation highlighted in their report was that there was a lack of robust data collected about various aspects of the care system. Notably it was highlighted that there is a lack of data collected about permanent exclusions and suspensions from school amongst children looked after in out of home care (CLA). This study was therefore designed to fill this evidence gap. Using anonymised linked administrative data held in SAIL Databank to identify those receiving care and support (CRCS) from their local authority, rates of permanent exclusion and suspension have been determined for the different groups within the CRCS cohort (CLA, those on the child protection register (CPR) and those receiving support who are neither CLA nor CPR) which have then been compared to their peers without this experience. Factors such as phase of education, setting, free school meal entitlement, having additional learning needs, age and gender have also been considered along with the reason for the suspension or exclusion. In drawing comparisons with peers, an intersectional approach was adopted to identify disparity. It is hoped that findings from this student study will stimulate debate and contribute towards the development of changes in Welsh policy.

Are there systematic differences in Teacher Assessment and Test Scores by Exclusion Status?

Objective and ApproachThe educational performance of school pupils in England is assessed in many ways, including through formal testing and teacher assessment. It is important to understand whether certain types of pupils perform better in certain forms of assessment, and although this has been studied within the context of ethnicity, amidst a recent increase in the number of school exclusions in England there is a growing need to understand whether excluded pupils perform differently than never-excluded pupils in different forms of assessment, especially given that excluded pupils are characterized by multiple forms of disadvantage. This study investigates this question using the Longitudinal Educational Outcomes (LEO) dataset, focusing on a cohort of pupils who undertook both forms of assessment at the end of Key Stage 3 (age 14). ResultsWe first explore whether, compared with never-excluded pupils, excluded pupils receive a teacher assessment level below their achieved test level, conditional on prior attainment. These estimates reveal no differences by exclusion record, and this result holds for all assessed subjects (English, Maths and Science). We also explore whether, conditional on the Key Stage 3 test score, excluded pupils have a higher chance of being assessed below the expected level by their teacher. These estimates indicate that, compared with measurably similar pupils who are never excluded, some excluded pupils underachieve in teacher assessment. Conclusions and ImplicationsOverall, the results show that what can be learned about systematic discrepancies between teacher assessment and test measures depends on how such discrepancies are estimated.

Family Poverty, School Exclusion and Psychological Distress: A Multilevel Analysis in 15 Countries

ABSTRACT The relationship between family poverty and children’s psychological distress is well-established, often assessed through income-based measures. However, a child-centric perspective is lacking, particularly regarding the roles of teacher neglect and peer bullying as potential mediators, and the impact of cultural differences. This study explores how familial poverty affects psychological distress, examines teacher neglect and peer bullying as mediators, and assesses the moderating role of culture. Analyzing a global sample of 16,860 ten-year-olds from the International Survey of Children’s Well-Being, the findings reveal a positive correlation between poverty and psychological distress. Teacher neglect and peer bullying partially mediate this link. Moreover, the association between teacher neglect and psychological distress is stronger for children in collectivist cultures, while the association between peer bullying and psychological distress is stronger for children in individualistic cultures. This research provides new insights and practical implications for addressing children’s psychological distress worldwide.

Comprehensive Review of Molluscum Contagiosum in Children: Prevalence, Transmission, Clinical Features, and FDA-Approved Treatments

Background: Molluscum contagiosum (MC) is a common viral skin infection affecting school-aged children, with a prevalence of 2-8%. Although self-limited, MC often requires active management to prevent spread, scarring, and to address cosmetic and social concerns. Traditional treatments have various complications, and currently, only topical berdazimer gel and cantharidin are approved by the FDA. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted to assess the prevalence, transmission, clinical presentation, complications, and treatment options for MC. The review included studies from various geographic regions, focusing on both physical and chemical treatment methods, as well as newer FDA-approved therapies. Results: MC is most prevalent in children aged 2-5, with no gender-specific differences. The infection manifests as skin-colored, dome-shaped papules, primarily on exposed skin. Complications include school exclusion, social isolation, and secondary infections. Treatment options vary widely in efficacy and safety. Physical treatments like curettage and cryotherapy are effective but can cause scarring and discomfort. Chemical treatments, including potassium hydroxide and cantharidin, offer non-invasive alternatives but have side effects. Newer treatments like topical berdazimer gel and cantharidin solution are promising due to their ease of use and lower complication rates. Conclusion: MC is a significant infection in children, often necessitating treatment due to its complications. While traditional treatments have notable drawbacks, FDA-approved topical therapies, berdazimer gel, and cantharidin, provide effective and safer options. Further research is needed to optimize treatment protocols and minimize adverse effects.

Educational outcomes among children with congenital heart disease compared to peers: a Scotland-wide record-linkage study of 715,850 schoolchildren

BackgroundNine in every thousand children born in the United Kingdom have congenital heart disease, and 250,000 adults are living with the condition. This study aims to investigate the associations between congenital heart disease and educational outcomes among school-aged children in Scotland.MethodsRoutine health and education databases were linked to produce a cohort of all singleton children born in Scotland and attending a local authority run primary, secondary, or special school in Scotland at some point between 2009 and 2013. Children with congenital heart disease within this cohort were compared with children unaffected by congenital conditions. Outcomes investigated were special educational need (SEN), absenteeism, exclusion, academic attainment, and unemployment. All analyses were adjusted for sociodemographic and maternity confounders. Absenteeism was investigated as a mediating factor in the associations with attainment and unemployment.ResultsOf the 715,850 children, 6,295 (0.9%) had congenital heart disease and 4,412 (6.1%) had isolated congenital heart disease. Congenital heart disease and isolated congenital heart disease were both significantly associated with subsequent special educational need (OR 3.45, 95% CI 3.26–3.65, p < 0.001 and OR 1.98, 95% CI 1.84–2.13, p < 0.001 respectively), absenteeism (IRR 1.13, 95% CI 1.10–1.16, p < 0.001 and IRR 1.10, 95% CI 1.06–1.13, p < 0.001 respectively), and low academic attainment (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.39–2.07, p < 0.001 and OR 1.35, 95% CI 1.07–1.69, p = 0.011 respectively). Neither congenital heart disease nor isolated congenital heart disease were associated with school exclusion. Only congenital heart disease (OR 1.21, 95% CI 1.03–1.42, p = 0.022) but not isolated congenital heart disease was associated with unemployment. When days absent were included in the analyses investigating attainment and unemployment, the conclusions were not altered.ConclusionChildren with congenital heart disease have greater special educational need, lower school attendance, attain lower examination grades and have greater unemployment compared to peers. In addition to healthcare support, affected children need educational support to avoid additional impact on their long-term wellbeing.

Who deserves help and who is bad? Race and class in ‘doing’ school exclusion

ABSTRACT This article presents findings from qualitative research on school exclusion. The study was conducted in a Pupil Referral Unit (PRU), part of alternative education provision, in England. Mixed methods used included ethnographic approaches, drama-based group work, focus group discussions and interviews. Research participants were teenage boys (age 14–16) and professionals including Teachers and Teaching Assistants (TAs). Data were analysed in multiple ways within a post structural framework, this included a participatory Data Sharing workshop with boys at the PRU and psycho social approaches. Intersectionality and post structural theories provide conceptual resources for the study. Key themes are as follows: Situated context, boys’ creative practices through rap music and the phenomenon of parents sending their sons ‘back home’ outside the UK. The article highlights school exclusion as part of a wider global context of inequity and punishment in education. It offers nuanced insights from the raced and classed experience of exclusion.