Examined Emotion Regulation Research Articles

The Role of Emotion Regulation in the Relationship Between Trauma and Health-Related Outcomes

The current study examined emotion regulation variables (alexithymia, negative urgency, distress tolerance) and their relationship to traumatic event exposure, emotional intelligence (EI), and health outcomes: posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms, antisocial behaviors, alcohol use, and alcohol-related problems. Data from 561 undergraduate students and structural equation modeling was used to test the hypotheses. Results indicated both traumatic experiences and EI predicted PTS symptoms directly and indirectly, via alexithymia and distress tolerance. Conversely, traumatic experiences and EI predicted antisocial behaviors and both alcohol outcomes directly and indirectly. EI was indirectly related to alcohol-related problems via PTS and antisocial behaviors, regardless of alcohol consumption.

Emotion regulation during adolescence: Antecedent or outcome of depressive symptomology?

Consistently, moderate to strong correlations between emotion regulation and depressive symptomology are well documented. This relationship is most often conceptualized as unidirectional, in that poor emotion regulation acts as a pre-existing risk factor for depressive symptomatology. However, explicit examinations of the direction of this relationship have been limited, and support for a directional relation between emotion regulation and psychopathology has been inconsistent. Moreover, the majority of the research exploring these associations relies on adult participants and the studies that have examined emotion regulation and depression in adolescents have relied almost exclusively on cross-sectional data. As a replication and extension of work that has been done by others, the current study assessed Suppression and Reappraisal use and Depressive Symptoms in 1343 adolescents (Mean age = 12.9 years, SD = 0.85) who completed assessments of emotion regulation and depressive symptoms four times over two years. Results indicated that only Suppression but not Reappraisal was concurrently correlated with Depressive Symptoms. Moreover, a correlated slopes analysis showed that within-subject changes in use of Suppression, but not Reappraisal, were associated with within-subject changes in Depressive Symptoms over time. Finally, a cross-lag panel analysis showed that while Depressive Symptoms were predictive of future Suppression use, Suppression use did not predict later Depressive Symptoms. Therefore, while Suppression and Depressive Symptoms seem to be associated during adolescence, associations between reappraisal and depressive symptomology were not present in the current study. Moreover, despite previous evidence supporting emotion regulation as a risk factor for depression, suppression may be the outcome, rather than the antecedent, of depressive symptoms during adolescence.

Self–Compassion is Best Measured as a Global Construct and is Overlapping with but Distinct from Neuroticism: A Response to Pfattheicher, Geiger, Hartung, Weiss, and Schindler (2017)

Pfattheicher and colleagues recently published an article entitled ‘Old Wine in New Bottles? The Case of Self–compassion and Neuroticism’ that argues the negative items of the Self–compassion Scale (SCS), which represent reduced uncompassionate self–responding, are redundant with neuroticism (especially its depression and anxiety facets) and do not evidence incremental validity in predicting life satisfaction. Using potentially problematic methods to examine the factor structure of the SCS (higher–order confirmatory factor analysis), they suggest a total self–compassion score should not be used and negative items should be dropped. In Study 1, we present a reanalysis of their data using what we argue are more theoretically appropriate methods (bifactor exploratory structural equation modelling) that support use of a global self–compassion factor (explaining 94% of item variance) over separate factors representing compassionate and reduced uncompassionate self–responding. While self–compassion evidenced a large correlation with neuroticism and depression and a small correlation with anxiety, it explained meaningful incremental validity in life satisfaction compared with neuroticism, depression, and anxiety. Findings were replicated in Study 2, which examined emotion regulation. Study 3 established the incremental validity of negative items with multiple well–being outcomes. We conclude that although self–compassion overlaps with neuroticism, the two constructs are distinct. © 2018 European Association of Personality Psychology

Difficulties with emotion regulation moderate the association between childhood history of maltreatment and cortisol reactivity to psychosocial challenge in postpartum women

Exposure to child maltreatment can lead to long-term emotional difficulties and dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. However, no prior work has examined emotion regulation as a moderator of the association between childhood history of maltreatment and cortisol response to psychosocial challenge. Amongst a sample of 140 postpartum women, associations between childhood maltreatment, emotion regulation, and cortisol response to a computerized Emotional Stroop paradigm were examined using structural equation modeling. Three saliva samples (baseline, 20- and 40-min post-challenge) were collected and later assayed for cortisol. Stepwise regression analyses revealed that difficulties with emotion regulation significantly moderated the association between maternal history of child maltreatment and cortisol reactivity (β=−0.17, CI.95=−0.31, −0.04, t=−2.51, p=0.01). Specifically, women with higher child maltreatment scores and greater difficulties with emotion regulation displayed reduced cortisol reactivity. This finding suggests that diminished emotion regulation capacity may uniquely contribute to blunted physiological reactivity in postpartum women exposed to higher levels of child maltreatment. As the postpartum period has significant implications for maternal well-being and infant development, these findings are discussed in terms of adaptive responsivity, maternal behaviour, and clinical practice.

The regulation of achievements emotions: Implications for research and practice.

In educational contexts, students experience a range of emotions, which can occur in response to a variety of stimuli, such as achievement (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2014). These emotions are referred to as achievement emotions because are tied to achievement activities or achievement outcomes (Pekrun, 2006, p. 317). Achievement emotions are important because they mediate effective learning by influencing the correlates of achievement, including cognitive, motivational, and behavioral factors (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun & Perry, 2014). For example, positive activating emotions, such as enjoyment, preserve cognitive resources, direct attention toward the achievement task, and promote motivation and deep learning (e.g., Meinhardt & Pekrun, 2003; Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002). As such, these emotions relate positively to learning and achievement (e.g., Ahmed, van der Werf, Kuyper, & Minnaert, 2013; Buric & Soric, 2012; Villavicencio & Bernardo, 2013). On the other hand, negative activating emotions, such as anxiety, are expected to reduce cognitive resources, direct attention away from the task, reduce motivation, and lead to more surface learning (e.g., Pekrun et al., 2002; Turner & Schallert, 2001). As a consequence, negative activating emotions are related negatively to learning and achievement (e.g., Buric & Soric, 2012; Dettmers et al., 2011; Hembree, 1998; Zeidner, 1998). This growing body of work has highlighted the need for fostering adaptive achievement emotions to promote learning and achievement. However, how adaptive achievement emotions can be supported remains an underexplored area of research (Pekrun & Perry, 2014). Emotion regulation is one possible mechanism to support adaptive achievement emotions.Control over one's emotions was initially examined in the form of coping with stressful events and focused on the control of negative affect (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). More recently, research has examined emotion regulation, which is the ability to modify the occurrence, intensity, and duration of positive and negative emotion (Gross, 1998). In clinical, personality, and developmental psychology, emotion regulation has witnessed an increase in empirical research, which has linked emotion regulation to various outcomes, including psychological and emotional adjustment (e.g., Berking, Orth, Wupperman, Meier, & Caspar, 2008; Silk, Steinberg, & Morris, 2003), mental health (e.g., Berking & Wupperman, 2012; Gross & Munoz, 1995), and well-being (e.g., Gross & John, 2003). More recent investigations, however, have revealed that the causes and consequences of emotion regulation are more nuanced than earlier research suggested. For example, the implementation of specific emotion regulation strategies has shown various patterns of adaptiveness and effectiveness (for reviews, see Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Scheiwzer, 2010; Webb, Miles, & Sheeran, 2012). In addition, it now appears that context is of particular importance for emotion regulation decisions and consequences (e.g., Aldao, 2013; Gross, 2015; Troy, Schallcross, & Mauss, 2013). Accordingly, findings from the broader psychological literature might not necessarily generalize to educational settings or specific contexts within these settings. This raises many foundational questions for research and practice in education, including the following: (a) Which emotions should be regulated? (b) When should emotions be regulated? (c) How should emotions be regulated? and (d) What are the consequences of emotion regulation? Addressing these questions is critical because student emotions are not only central to learning and achievement but also for student well-being and retention (Pekrun & Perry, 2014).In this article, we review the conceptualization, process, and consequences of regulating achievement emotions. In the next section, we review theories of emotion and models of emotion regulation by drawing on related fields of psychology, as well as educational psychology. …

Trait Mindfulness and Progression to Injection Use in Youth With Opioid Addiction

ABSTRACTBackground: Many youth initiate opioid misuse with prescription opioids and transition over time to more severe substance-using behaviors, including injection. Trait mindfulness is a potentially protective factor. Objectives: This is a cross-sectional study characterizing a sample of opioid-using youth by level of mindfulness and examines the potential effect modification of emotion regulation on the relationship between mindfulness and progression to injection opioid use. Methods: A convenience sample of 112 youth (ages 14–24) was recruited during an episode of inpatient detoxification and residential treatment for opioid use disorders. We examined emotion regulation (Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale), mindfulness (Child Acceptance and Mindfulness Measure), and opioid use. We completed multivariable regressions stratified by degree of emotion regulation looking at relationship of mindfulness on time to injection use from age of first prescription opioid. Results: Youth had difficulties in emotion regulation (m = 104.2; SD = 2.41) and low mindfulness (m = 19.1;SD = 0.59). While we found overall that mindfulness was associated with time to progression to injection opioid use, there was significant effect modification. Among youth with high levels of difficulty in emotion regulation, those with high mindfulness trait had quicker progressions to injection (−1.31 years; p =.003). In contrast, youth with normal emotion regulation and high mindfulness trait had a slower progression to injection (1.67 years; p =.041). Conclusion/Importance: Our study showed a majority of youth presenting with opioid use disorders have impairments in emotion regulation and deficits in trait mindfulness. The relationship between mindfulness and opioid use is impacted by emotion regulation capacity. More research is needed to understand the various facets of mindfulness and how they interact with emotion regulation in youth.

Emotion regulation and psychological problems among Indian college youth

Background: Study of emotion regulation strategies used by youth becomes necessary in the background of the high prevalence of emotional disorders in this population. This study examined emotion regulation and psychological problems among college youth as well as the relationship between the two. Methodology: Four hundred and nineteen students, who were divided into two groups (older adolescents, aged 16-17 years - group 1, n = 217; young adults aged 18-25 years - group 2, n = 202) participated in this exploratory study. Results: Predominantly positive emotion regulation strategies were used by group 1 (positive refocusing, refocus on planning, and positive reappraisal, respectively). The sample as a whole used more positive strategies (positive refocusing: 82% and 64% and refocus on planning: 93% and 87% in groups 1 and 2, respectively). Significant correlations between emotion regulation strategies (CERQ) and psychological problems (YSR/YASR) were found, thereby indicating that negative emotion regulation strategies were associated with psychological problems and vice versa. Females were found to have more of anxiety problems as opposed to males with more of conduct problems. However with increase in age, increase in the percentage of psychological problems and usage of negative emotion regulation strategies was observed. Conclusion: The findings of the present study contribute to understanding the patterns of emotion regulation in various emotional disorders. Findings could also contribute to developing an intervention program to help students having difficulty in regulation of their emotions.

Mediators of the Relationship Between Dispositional Mindfulness and Psychological Well-Being in Female College Students

Mindfulness has been associated with a range of positive mental health outcomes, including psychological well-being. Less well-understood, however, are the mechanisms by which mindfulness may improve psychological health and which specific aspects of mindfulness may be associated with psychological health. The present study examined emotion regulation and thought suppression as possible mediators of the association between four components of dispositional mindfulness (i.e., describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging, and nonreacting) and psychological well-being. One hundred eighty-five healthy female college students completed a series of self-report questionnaires measuring dispositional mindfulness, difficulties with emotion regulation, thought suppression, and psychological well-being. Overall, higher levels of mindfulness were associated with fewer difficulties with emotion regulation and less thought suppression, which in turn were inversely related to psychological well-being. Specifically, difficulties with emotion regulation and thought suppression together partially mediated the relationship between the acting with awareness mindfulness subscale and psychological well-being. Difficulties with emotion regulation and thought suppression together fully mediated the relationships between the describing mindfulness subscale and psychological well-being, as well as between the nonreacting mindfulness subscale and psychological well-being. These findings suggest that female college students exhibiting greater dispositional mindfulness skills demonstrate heightened emotional awareness and control, as well as a better ability to tolerate negative thoughts, skills which may improve psychological health.

Cognitive and Emotional Processes as Predictors of a Successful Transition Into School

ABSTRACTResearch Findings: The aim of this research was to delineate developmental processes that contribute to early school success. To achieve this aim, we examined emotion regulation, executive functioning, emotion knowledge, and metacognition at ages 3 and 4 as distal and proximal predictors of age 5 achievement and school adjustment in a sample of 263 children (42% non-White). We also explored mediational pathways among these 4 processes in the prediction of the age 5 outcomes. Results revealed that all 4 processes affected achievement and school adjustment, but in different ways, with executive functioning emerging as a key predictor. Practice or Policy: Executive functioning was found to be a key factor in predicting achievement and school performance in the kindergarten year. This finding provides support for the development of executive functioning training programs that can be applied in the preschool classroom, particularly for promoting reading development. However, additional emphasis should be placed on both cognitive and emotional processes in the preschool years to promote optimal development.

VlPFC-vmPFC-Amygdala Interactions Underlie Age-Related Differences in Cognitive Regulation of Emotion.

Emotion regulation is a critical life skill that develops throughout childhood and adolescence. Despite this development in emotional processes, little is known about how the underlying brain systems develop with age. This study examined emotion regulation in 112 individuals (aged 6-23 years) as they viewed aversive and neutral images using a reappraisal task. On "reappraisal" trials, participants were instructed to view the images as distant, a strategy that has been previously shown to reduce negative affect. On "reactivity" trials, participants were instructed to view the images without regulating emotions to assess baseline emotional responding. During reappraisal, age predicted less negative affect, reduced amygdala responses and inverse coupling between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and amygdala. Moreover, left ventrolateral prefrontal (vlPFC) recruitment mediated the relationship between increasing age and diminishing amygdala responses. This negative vlPFC-amygdala association was stronger for individuals with inverse coupling between the amygdala and vmPFC. These data provide evidence that vmPFC-amygdala connectivity facilitates vlPFC-related amygdala modulation across development.

Anxiety Sensitivity and Alcohol Use Among Acute-Care Psychiatric Inpatients: The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation Difficulties

There is strong empirical support for the association between anxiety sensitivity and alcohol use, although this has not been investigated in psychiatric inpatients. Further, little is known about mechanisms mediating these associations, such as emotion regulation difficulties. Self-report questionnaires measuring anxiety sensitivity, difficulties regulating emotion, and alcohol use were administered to 119 adults admitted to an acute-care inpatient psychiatric hospital. The current study examined emotion regulation difficulties as a mediator in the anxiety sensitivity–alcohol use severity association. Exploratory analyses separately examined effects with regard to alcohol consumption in terms of number of days drinking and drinking to intoxication as well as alcohol problems in terms of number of days experiencing problems and degree of bother resulting from alcohol problems. Emotion regulation difficulties significantly mediated the associations between anxiety sensitivity and alcohol use severity, days drinking to intoxication, days experiencing alcohol-related problems, and degree of bother caused by alcohol problems. Indirect associations were medium sized. There were no direct associations of anxiety sensitivity with any outcome, controlling for emotion regulation difficulties. Anxiety sensitivity may be indirectly (via emotion regulation difficulties) related to alcohol consumption and alcohol problems with no significant direct associations after accounting for emotion regulation difficulties.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Depressive Symptoms Among Inpatient Adolescents: The Underlying Role of Emotion Regulation

ABSTRACTThe present study examined emotion regulation as a potential mechanism in the relationship between Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and depression among 50 inpatient adolescents receiving psychiatric care at an inpatient mental hospital. PTSD symptoms were significantly associated with emotion dysregulation and depressive symptoms. Mediation analyses and bias-corrected bootstrapping techniques supported emotion dysregulation as a mechanism underlying the association between PTSD and depression symptoms. These findings support the notion that adolescents with clinical levels of PTSD symptoms may engage in ineffective emotion regulation strategies, such as emotional avoidance and suppression, which may, in turn, be associated with increased depression. Findings and implications are discussed.

Emotion Regulation in At‐Risk Preschoolers: Longitudinal Associations and Influences of Maternal Histories of Risk

Emotion regulation is a key challenge of early childhood. The present study examined emotion regulation behaviour longitudinally from infancy to preschool. The continuity of emotion regulation was explored within the larger ecological context of maternal childhood histories of aggression and social withdrawal and maternal use of constructive and non‐constructive behaviours. Forty‐five mothers with childhood histories of aggression or social withdrawal from the Concordia Longitudinal Risk Project, a prospective, longitudinal, intergenerational study, participated with their preschool children. Infants' emotion regulation behaviour was observed during interactions with their mothers when they were 5½ months of age. Emotion regulation in these same children as preschoolers was coded during an interference task using the Preschooler Self‐Regulatory Scheme. Longitudinal findings demonstrated continuity in children's use of emotion regulation behaviours from infancy to preschool. Higher maternal childhood histories of risk, specifically social withdrawal, contributed to the prediction of preschoolers' increased attention‐seeking behaviours. Mothers' use of non‐constructive verbalizations predicted more maladaptive styles of emotion regulation in their preschoolers. The findings highlight the importance of helping children develop adaptive emotion regulation skills from a young age and have implications for the design of preventive intervention programmes to help parents foster children's emotion regulation abilities. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Are Specific Emotion Regulation Strategies Differentially Associated with Posttraumatic Growth Versus Stress?

Extremely few studies have examined emotion regulation strategies as predictors of posttraumatic growth (PTG). This study aimed to examine several specific emotion regulation strategies, along with meaning making, as predictors of PTG, as opposed to posttraumatic distress. Participants were 107 adult women who had experienced a very stressful or traumatic event within the past 3 years and completed questionnaires measuring emotion regulation, meaning making, distress, and PTG. Emotion suppression positively predicted distress, but not PTG. Meaning making positively predicted PTG and negatively predicted distress. Bootstrapped mediation models showed that emotional processing has a significant indirect effect on PTG and distress through its effect on meaning making. Results indicate that researchers should pay closer attention to emotional processes involved in etiological models of PTG. It might also be helpful to examine specific emotion regulation strategies, as these can point to ways to help people navigate recovery from trauma.

Early Behavioral Inhibition and Emotion Regulation: Pathways Toward Social Competence in Middle Childhood.

This study examined emotion regulation (ER) as a mediator in the relation between early behavioral inhibition (BI) and later social competence (N=257), and whether this mediation varied depending on BI levels. Maternal report and observational measures were used to assess BI (ages 2 and 3). Children's ER strategies (age 5) and social competence with an unfamiliar peer (age 7) were measured using observational measures. Results showed that BI predicted less engaged ER strategies during a disappointment task, and engaged ER predicted higher social competence. Engaged ER mediated the effect of BI on social competence, but only for highly inhibited children. Findings elucidate developmental trajectories of risk and resilience, and suggest targeting regulatory strategies in early prevention efforts with highly inhibited children.

College Student Binge Eating: Insecure Attachment and Emotion Regulation

Because college students who have accomplished developmental tasks less effectively may be at risk for detrimental behavior such as binge eating, we examined emotion regulation as a mediator of attachment insecurity and binge eating. Based on undergraduate and graduate student responses to a Web-based survey ( N = 381), structural equation modeling revealed that attachment insecurity and binge eating were associated and mediated by emotion regulation. Implications for college student counseling and development are discussed.

Emotion Regulation and Key Change Events in Emotionally Focused Couple Therapy

In emotionally focused couple therapy (EFT), the completion of a blamer-softening event has been related to deeper emotional experiencing and relationship repair. However, the characteristics of those who are able to complete this event are unknown. The authors examined emotion regulation at intake in relation to key change processes in EFT. Results indicated that emotional control and emotional self-awareness, two emotion regulation strategies, at intake did not predict in-session emotional experiencing or the completion of a blamer-softening event. Results also indicated that gender was a significant predictor of emotional experiencing in the best session. Results attest to the efficacy and generalizability of EFT.

Attachment to Parents and Peers as a Risk Factor for Adolescent Depressive Disorders: The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation

This study examined emotion regulation as a mediator in the relationship of attachment and depression in adolescents. Participants (Ngirls =127; M age=14.50; Nboys =121; M age=14.31) completed self-report questionnaires of attachment to parents and peers, emotion regulation and depression. Models with dysfunctional emotion regulation as a mediation variable were tested via hierarchical multiple regression analyses and bootstrapping procedure. Results revealed significant relations between attachment to parents and peers, dysfunctional emotion regulation and depression. For girls, internal-dysfunctional emotion regulation was a mediator in the relation of attachment to parents and depression and partly mediated the association of attachment to peers. For boys, internal- and external-dysfunctional emotion regulation acted as partly mediators in association of attachment to parents and depression. Results indicate important mechanisms that contribute to the refinement of conceptual models and provide indications for gender specific prevention and intervention for depressive disorders.

Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Change in an Acceptance-Based Emotion Regulation Group Therapy for Deliberate Self-Harm Among Women With Borderline Personality Pathology

Despite the clinical importance of deliberate self-harm (DSH) within borderline personality disorder (BPD), there are few empirically supported treatments for this behavior among individuals with BPD; and those that do exist are difficult to implement in many clinical settings. Thus, Gratz and colleagues developed an adjunctive emotion regulation group therapy (ERGT) for women with BPD that directly targets both DSH and its proposed underlying mechanism of emotion dysregulation. Although previous studies support the use of this ERGT in reducing DSH, no studies have examined emotion regulation as a mechanism of change in this treatment. Therefore, this study examined the mediating role of changes in emotion dysregulation in DSH improvement across two separate trials of this ERGT. As hypothesized, changes in emotion dysregulation mediated the observed reductions in DSH frequency. Results provide support for the theoretical model underlying this ERGT and highlight the importance of targeting emotion dysregulation in treatments for DSH.

Emotion Regulation Mediates the Relationship between ADHD and Depressive Symptoms in Youth

A significant literature suggests that youth diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are at increased risk for later depression relative to youth without ADHD. Youth with co-occurring ADHD and depression experience more serious impairments and worse developmental outcomes than those with either disorder alone, including increased rates of suicidal ideation and suicide completion. Despite these very serious outcomes, few studies have examined the mechanisms underlying the relationship between ADHD and depression in youth. The present study examined emotion regulation (ER) as a mediator of the relationship between ADHD and depressive symptoms in 69 youth between the ages of 10 and 14, with (n = 37) and without (n = 32) ADHD. Parent and youth ratings of depressive symptoms and ER were collected. Youth with ADHD reported significantly more depressive symptoms and poorer ER ability relative to youth without ADHD. ER fully mediated the relationship between ADHD and depressive symptoms. Limitations and clinical implications are discussed.