Evolution Of Levels Research Articles

A multi-gene phylogeny of Lactifluus (Basidiomycota, Russulales) translated into a new infrageneric classification of the genus.

Infrageneric relations of the genetically diverse milkcap genus Lactifluus (Russulales, Basidiomycota) are poorly known. Currently used classification systems still largely reflect the traditional, mainly morphological, characters used for infrageneric delimitations of milkcaps. Increased sampling, combined with small-scale molecular studies, show that this genus is underexplored and in need of revision. For this study, we assembled an extensive dataset of the genus Lactifluus, comprising 80 % of all known species and 30 % of the type collections. To unravel the infrageneric relationships within this genus, we combined a multi-gene molecular phylogeny, based on nuclear ITS, LSU, RPB2 and RPB1, with a morphological study, focussing on five important characteristics (fruit body type, presence of a secondary velum, colour reaction of the latex/context, pileipellis type and presence of true cystidia). Lactifluus comprises four supported subgenera, each containing several supported clades. With extensive sampling, ten new clades and at least 17 new species were discovered, which highlight the high diversity in this genus. The traditional infrageneric classification is only partly maintained and nomenclatural changes are proposed. Our morphological study shows that the five featured characteristics are important at different evolutionary levels, but further characteristics need to be studied to find morphological support for each clade. This study paves the way for a more detailed investigation of biogeographical history and character evolution within Lactifluus.

Understanding and predicting protein misfolding and aggregation: Insights from proteomics.

Protein misfolding and aggregation are being found to be associated with an increasing number of human diseases and premature aging, either because they promote a loss of protein function or, more frequently, because the aggregated species gain a toxic activity. Despite potentially harmful, aggregation seems to be a generic property of polypeptide chains and aggregation-prone protein sequences seem to be ubiquitous, which, counterintuitively, suggests that they serve evolutionary conserved functions. The in vitro study of individual aggregation reactions of a large number of proteins has provided important insights on the structural and sequential determinants of this process. However, it is clear that understanding the role played by protein aggregation and its regulation in health and disease at the cellular, developmental, and evolutionary levels require more global approaches. The use of model organisms and their proteomic analysis hold the power to provide answers to such issues. In the present review, we address how, initially, computational large-scale analysis and, more recently, experimental proteomics are helping us to rationalize how, why and when proteins aggregate, as well as to decipher the strategies organisms have developed to control proteins aggregation propensities.

New role of biomarkers: mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin, the biomarker of organ failure

Mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin (MR-proADM) has a good biomarker profile: its half-life is several hours, and its plasma concentrations can be determined in clinical practice, it is essentially irrelevant, but proportionally represents the levels and activity of adrenomedullin (ADM). ADM synthesis is widely distributed in tissues, including bone, adrenal cortex, kidney, lung, blood vessels and heart. Its fundamental biological effects include vasodilator, positive inotropic, diuretic, natriuretic and bronchodilator. It has been described high levels in septic patients, interacting directly with the relaxation of vascular tone, triggering hypotension of these patients. It is also found high levels in other diseases such as hypertension, heart failure, respiratory failure, renal failure, cirrhosis and cancer. MR-proADM has been identified as a prognostic marker, stratifying the mortality risk in patients with sepsis in emergency department (ED) and ICU. Evolutionary MR-proADM levels and clearance marker to the 2nd-5th days of admission help to determine the poor performance and the risk of mortality in patients with severe sepsis admitted to the ICU. The MR-proADM levels are more effective than procalcitonin (PCT) and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels to determine an unfavorable outcome and the risk of mortality in patients with sepsis admitted to the ICU. It has also proved useful in patients diagnosed with organ dysfunction of infectious etiology. MR-proADM levels are independent of the germ conversely it is related to the magnitude of organ failure and therefore severity. We consider advisable incorporating the MR-proADM the panel of biomarkers necessary for the diagnosis and treatment of critically ill patients admitted to the ICU with severe sepsis. The combined PCT and MR-proADM levels could represent a valid tool in the clinical practice to timely identify patients with bacterial infections and guide the diagnosis and treatment of sepsis and septic shock.

Molecular Evolution and Genetic Variation of G2-Like Transcription Factor Genes in Maize.

The productivity of maize (Zea mays L.) depends on the development of chloroplasts, and G2-like transcription factors play a central role in regulating chloroplast development. In this study, we identified 59 G2-like genes in the B73 maize genome and systematically analyzed these genes at the molecular and evolutionary levels. Based on gene structure character, motif compositions and phylogenetic analysis, maize G2-like genes (ZmG1- ZmG59) were divided into seven groups (I-VII). By synteny analysis, 18 collinear gene pairs and strongly conserved microsyntny among regions hosting G2-like genes across maize and sorghum were found. Here, we showed that the vast majority of ZmG gene duplications resulted from whole genome duplication events rather than tandem duplications. After gene duplication events, some ZmG genes were silenced. The functions of G2-like genes were multifarious and most genes that are expressed in green tissues may relate to maize photosynthesis. The qRT-PCR showed that the expression of these genes was sensitive to low temperature and drought. Furthermore, we analyzed differences of ZmGs specific to cultivars in temperate and tropical regions at the population level. Interestingly, the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis revealed that nucleotide polymorphism associated with different temperature zones. Above all, G2-like genes were highly conserved during evolution, but polymorphism could be caused due to a different geographical location. Moreover, G2-like genes might be related to cold and drought stresses.

Distinct distributions of genomic features of the 5' and 3' partners of coding somatic cancer gene fusions: arising mechanisms and functional implications.

The genomic features and arising mechanisms of coding cancer somatic gene fusions (CSGFs) largely remain elusive. In this study, we show the gene origin stratification pattern of CSGF partners that fusion partners in human cancers are significantly enriched for genes with the gene age ofEuteleostomes and with the gene family age of Bilateria. GC skew (a measurement of G, C nucleotide content bias, (G-C)/(G+C)) is a useful measurement to indicate the DNA leading strand, lagging strand, replication origin, and replication terminal and DNA-RNA R-loop formation. We find that GC skew bias at the 5 prime (5′) but not the 3 prime (3’) partners of CSGFs, coincident with the polarity feature of gene expression breadth that the 5’ partners are more ubiquitous while the 3’ fusion partners are more tissue specific in general. We reveal distinct length and composition distributions of 5’ and 3’ of CSGFs, including sequence features corresponded to the 5’ untranslated regions (UTRs), 3’ UTRs, and the N-terminal sequences of the encoded proteins. Oncogenic somatic gene fusions are most enriched for the 5’ and 3’ genes’ somatic amplification alongside a substantial proportion of other types of combinations. At the function level, 5’ partners of CSGFs appear more likely to be tumour suppressor genes while many 3’ partners appear to be proto-oncogene. Such distinct polarities of CSGFs at the evolutionary, structural, genomic and functional levels indicate the heterogeneous arsing mechanisms of CSGFs including R-loops and suggest potential novel targeted therapeutics specific to CSGF functional categories.

Mosaic evolution and the pattern of transitions in the hominin lineage.

Humans are uniquely unique, in terms of the extreme differences between them and other living organisms, and the impact they are having on the biosphere. The evolution of humans can be seen, as has been proposed, as one of the major transitions in evolution, on a par with the origins of multicellular organisms or the eukaryotic cell (Maynard Smith & Szathmáry 1997 Major transitions in evolution). Major transitions require the evolution of greater complexity and the emergence of new evolutionary levels or processes. Does human evolution meet these conditions? I explore the diversity of evidence on the nature of transitions in human evolution. Four levels of transition are proposed-baseline, novel taxa, novel adaptive zones and major transitions-and the pattern of human evolution considered in the light of these. The primary conclusions are that changes in human evolution occur continuously and cumulatively; that novel taxa and the appearance of new adaptations are not clustered very tightly in particular periods, although there are three broad transitional phases (Pliocene, Plio-Pleistocene and later Quaternary). Each phase is distinctive, with the first based on ranging and energetics, the second on technology and niche expansion, and the third on cognition and cultural processes. I discuss whether this constitutes a 'major transition' in the context of the evolutionary processes more broadly; the role of behaviour in evolution; and the opportunity provided by the rich genetic, phenotypic (fossil morphology) and behavioural (archaeological) record to examine in detail major transitions and the microevolutionary patterns underlying macroevolutionary change. It is suggested that the evolution of the hominin lineage is consistent with a mosaic pattern of change.This article is part of the themed issue 'Major transitions in human evolution'.

Terminal bacteroid differentiation in the legume-rhizobium symbiosis: nodule-specific cysteine-rich peptides and beyond.

Contents 411 I. 411 II. 412 III. 412 IV. 413 V. 414 VI. 414 VII. 415 VIII. 415 416 References 416 SUMMARY: Terminal bacteroid differentiation (TBD) is a remarkable case of bacterial cell differentiation that occurs after rhizobia are released intracellularly within plant cells of symbiotic legume organs called nodules. The hallmarks of TBD are cell enlargement, genome amplification and membrane permeabilization. This plant-driven process is governed by a large family of bacteroid-targeted nodule-specific cysteine-rich (NCR) peptides that were until recently thought to be restricted to a specific lineage of the legume family, including the model plant Medicago truncatula. Recently, new plant and bacterial factors involved in TBD have been identified, challenging our view of this phenomenon at mechanistic and evolutionary levels. Here, we review the recent literature and discuss emerging questions about the mechanisms and the role(s) of TBD.

Striking differences in the loud calls of howler monkey sister species (Alouatta pigra and A. palliata).

Comparing vocalizations across species is useful for understanding acoustic variation at mechanistic and evolutionary levels. Here, we take advantage of the divergent vocalizations of two closely related howler monkey species (Alouatta pigra and A. palliata) to better understand vocal evolution. In addition to comparing multiple acoustic and temporal features of roars and the calling bouts in which they are produced, we tested several predictions. First, A. pigra should have roars with lower fundamental frequency and lower formant dispersion because they are larger than A. palliata and have a larger hyoid apparatus. Second, A. pigra should have faster calling rates, longer roars, longer bouts, and exaggerated call features linked to vocal effort (e.g., nonlinear phenomena and emphasized frequencies) because they are the more aggressive species during intergroup encounters. We found significant interspecific differences supporting our predictions in every tested parameter of roars and bouts, except for roar duration and barking rate. Stepwise discriminant function analyses identified the best features for differentiating roars (acoustic features: formant dispersion followed by highest frequency; temporal features: longest syllable duration followed by number of syllables). Although resembling each other more than they resemble South American howler monkeys, our comparison revealed striking differences in the vocalizations of the two Mesoamerican species. While we cannot completely rule out the influence of body size or the environmental conditions in which the two species evolved, vocal differences were likely influenced by sexual selection. The exaggerated roars and intense calling patterns in A. pigra seem more suitable for intergroup competition, whereas A. palliata calls may be better suited for mate attraction and competition within groups. With interspecific acoustic differences quantified, we will now be able to examine how vocalizations contribute to the evolutionary dynamics of the A. palliata × A. pigra hybrid zone in southern Mexico. Am. J. Primatol. 78:755-766, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Molecular Phylogeography of Harvest Mice (Reithrodontomys megalotis) Based on Cytochrome b DNA Sequences

The species of harvest mouse Reithrodontomys megalotis belongs to one of the most diverse genera in North America with a wide latitudinal and altitudinal distribution. Previous studies suggest the existence of great morphological, chromosomal, and genetic variability; however, few of them have addressed the evolutionary patterns at the intraspecific level. We analyzed the evolutionary relationships and levels of genetic divergence in R. megalotis using DNA sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. The results of the analysis with different phylogeographic methods show that R. megalotis represents a monophyletic group with respect to R. zacatecae, and populations included here split in three groups that were always consistent. Populations from the southern distribution form the first clade; from western North America form the second clade; and the third one comprises the populations of the Central Plains from the southern United States and the Mexican Plateau. The values of average genetic divergence within and among clades are low (< 3.4 %) compared to other species with similar distribution and times of divergence and origin. The results of this work are discussed in the context of the low genetic divergence found, given its wide and heterogeneous distribution together with its morphological variation. It is suggested that populations of R. megalotis have probably developed considerable phenotypic plasticity whose analysis and description should be approached from an ecological more than historical perspective.

VARIATION IN THE SURFACE CURRENTS IN THE PANAMA BIGHT DURING EL NIÑO AND LA NIÑA EVENTS FROM 1993 TO 2007

Climatic anomalies have changed the ocean circulation pattern and thus the demographic connectivity. However, in many geographical regions there is insufficient evidence of this change. Therefore, comparisons were made between neutral years and years of El Niño and La Niña with moderate intensity, for the North Equatorial Counter Current (NECC), the South Equatorial Current (SEC), the Coastal Current (CoaC) and the main anticyclonic eddy in the Panama Bight. Daily dynamics topography data of the Maps of Absolute Dynamic Topography (MADT) provided by AVISO and daily wind stress data provide by the European Centre for Medium Range Weather (ECMWF) were used to calculate the speed of surface currents (multi-year, quarterly average), during months with the highest number of eggs and larvae released by the species with a pelagic phase (Sept-Nov). It was found that the speed magnitude for the three oceanic currents was statistically different among the compared events, except for the anticyclonic eddy; obtaining higher values of speed for neutral years in relation to years with El Niño or La Niña for the NECC, for the SEC higher values for La Niña years, followed by neutral years and a moderate El Niño years; for the CoaC higher velocity for neutral and La Niña years but the lowest for El Niño years; and a tendency of higher values in La Niña years for the anticyclonic eddy. Additionally, the number of eddies increased in moderate El Niño years. The results suggest that the decreased velocity of the NECC and the potential barriers created by the cyclonic eddies and the anticyclonic eddy near the South American coast could diminish the passive dispersal of larvae and the potential functional connectivity between the Western, Central and Eastern Tropical Pacific. Therefore, there are implications at the evolutionary, biogeographic, and ecologic levels (dispersion rates and population rescue effect). In contrast, during La Niña the SEC could favor teleplanktonic larval transport to the Central Pacific, material which is exported from the South American coast by CoaC, aided by the anticyclonic eddy. In conclusion, anomalous climatic events alter the velocity of oceanic currents in the Panama Bight; consequently these could change the functional potential connectivity from September to November.

Affect and the archive, archives and their affects: an introduction to the special issue

Affect and the Archive, Archives and their Affects: An Introduction to the Special Issue In recent decades, affect (both as a verb and as a noun) has become a major focus of fields as diverse as psychology and psychoanalysis, neuroscience and critical theory. There is no singular cross-cutting definition of affect. It may, for example, be approached clinically, phenomenologically, or critically. One goal of this special issue, therefore, has been to draw together and elucidate some of these different disciplinary understandings and point to their potential for research and practice in the archival field. Arguing that emotions are innate at all evolutionary levels and in all animals, including humans, psychologist Robert Plutchik's influential classification approach identified eight primary emotions: anger, fear, sadness, disgust, surprise, anticipation, trust and joy. He represented these emotions, their intensity, the relationships between them, and the ways in which they can co-occur to form derivative emotions on his ‘Wheel of Emotions’ (1980; 2001). His approach has generated a rich continuing research engagement around the affective and the human psyche. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick’s work on Silvan Tompkins’ psychobiology of differential affects drew from critical and cultural theory as well as from the sciences. Her research is often identified as seminal in precipitating interest in affect on the part of cultural theorists. These scientific and cultural theory approaches do come together in works such as Sedgwick’s; however, the genealogy of the study of affect in the humanities and social sciences is distinct from that in the more clinical and scientific fields. Since the 1990s, in what has been dubbed ‘the affective turn,’ cultural theorists of affect have presented alternatives to the psychoanalytic approach to affect. They assert that affects, emotions and feelings are legitimate and powerful objects of critical scholarly inquiry and exist in fraught relation to each other. By contrast, in other disciplinary and professional spaces the terms ‘affect,’ ‘emotion’ and ‘feeling’ may be used with much less discursive tension or definitional precision, and even interchangeably. Notwithstanding such differences and divergences, many of these fields are increasingly engaging not only with the record or the Archive as theoretical constructs, but also with actual records and archives. Another goal for this special issue, therefore, has been to begin to probe what the archival field might offer that would cross-inform understandings of and debates about the nature, role and effects of affect in such diverse fields as psychology, neuroscience and critical theory. The archival field historically has had a central preoccupation with the actual and the tangible. Many practitioners and theorists continue to evince a profound distrust of stances that seem less than objective and of aspects relating to records and archives that invoke affective responses. And yet, in recent years a growing number of authors in the archival literature have been focusing on some of the emotions represented on Plutchik’s Wheel (e.g., sadness, trust) and/or engaging with treatments of affect emanating out of such fields as cultural studies, gender studies, Indigenous studies, postcolonial studies, anthropology, psychology and trauma studies (e.g., Adami 2009; DiVeglia 2010; Caswell in press; Caswell and Cifor in press; Caswell, Cifor and Ramirez in press; Cifor in press; Caswell and Gilliland 2015; Carbone 2015; Faulkhead 2008; Gilliland 2014 and 2015; Halilovich 2013 and 2014; Harris 2014;

Evolution of occlusal shape of the first and second upper molars of Middle–Late Pleistocene collared lemmings (Dicrostonyx, Arvicolinae, Rodentia) in northeast European Russia

An approach combining traditional morphotypical methods, multivariate analysis and informational‐statistical methods was used to study evolutionary changes in the occlusal shape of the first and second upper molars of Recent and Middle–Late Pleistocene Dicrostonyx (32 samples) from localities in northeast European Russia (northeastern Russian Plain, the Timan Ridge and the northern part of the Urals). The evolutionary history is described in terms of morphological evolutionary levels of teeth suggested by Smirnov et al. (1997, Materialy Po Istorii I Sovremennomu Sostojaniju Fauny Severa Zapadnoj Sibiri: Sbornik Nauchnyh Trudov, Chelyabinsk, slightly modified). Based on 14C‐dated samples, levels of molar evolution did not always successively replace each other in time, but rather there were often synchronous populations at any given level. This finding supports the notion of a mosaic pattern of morphotypical diversity and relatively independent, parallel evolution of lemming teeth amongst different populations. Six relatively distinct stages in the evolutionary history of Dicrostonyx from the Pechora (Dnieper) to Recent time have been described, but estimations of their relative ages are often debatable. The rates of change in the M1 and M2 morphotypes and morphological diversity in collared lemmings varied over the entire time interval. The fastest replacement of morphotypes and the highest level of morphological diversity in the study area occurred approximately during the Lateglacial (16–10 cal. ka BP). In the present study, we suggest a new version of evolutionary history of collared lemmings in northeast European Russia, taking into consideration the morphological variability of molars, radiocarbon dates and geological data. Our results provide a more detailed pattern of species evolution in the studied region and specific ages of some localities.

To punish or to leave: distinct cognitive processes underlie partner control and partner choice behaviors.

When a cooperative partner defects, at least two types of response are available: Punishment, aimed at modifying behavior, and ostracism, aimed at avoiding further social interaction with the partner. These options, termed partner control and partner choice, have been distinguished at behavioral and evolutionary levels. However, little work has compared their cognitive bases. Do these disparate behaviors depend on common processes of moral evaluation? Specifically, we assess whether they show identical patterns of dependence on two key dimensions of moral evaluation: A person’s intentions, and the outcomes that they cause. We address this issue in a “trembling hand” economic game. In this game, an allocator divides a monetary stake between themselves and a responder based on a stochastic mechanism. This allows for dissociations between the allocator’s intent and the actual outcome. Responders were either given the opportunity to punish or reward the allocator (partner control) or to switch to a different partner for a subsequent round of play (partner choice). Our results suggest that partner control and partner choice behaviors are supported by distinct underlying cognitive processes: Partner control exhibits greater sensitivity to the outcomes a partner causes, while partner choice is influenced almost exclusively by a partner’s intentions. This cognitive dissociation can be understood in light of the unique adaptive functions of partner control and partner choice.

Gene acquisition convergence between entomopoxviruses and baculoviruses.

Organisms from diverse phylogenetic origins can thrive within the same ecological niches. They might be induced to evolve convergent adaptations in response to a similar landscape of selective pressures. Their genomes should bear the signature of this process. The study of unrelated virus lineages infecting the same host panels guarantees a clear identification of phyletically independent convergent adaptation. Here, we investigate the evolutionary history of genes in the accessory genome shared by unrelated insect large dsDNA viruses: the entomopoxviruses (EPVs, Poxviridae) and the baculoviruses (BVs). EPVs and BVs have overlapping ecological niches and have independently evolved similar infection processes. They are, in theory, subjected to the same selective pressures from their host’s immune responses. Their accessory genomes might, therefore, bear analogous genomic signatures of convergent adaption and could point out key genomic mechanisms of adaptation hitherto undetected in viruses. We uncovered 32 homologous, yet independent acquisitions of genes originating from insect hosts, different eukaryotes, bacteria and viruses. We showed different evolutionary levels of gene acquisition convergence in these viruses, underlining a continuous evolutionary process. We found both recent and ancient gene acquisitions possibly involved to the adaptation to both specific and distantly related hosts. Multidirectional and multipartite gene exchange networks appear to constantly drive exogenous gene assimilations, bringing key adaptive innovations and shaping the life histories of large DNA viruses. This evolutionary process might lead to genome level adaptive convergence.

The Central Role of Thiel‐Embalmed Cadaveric Dissection in a New Medical School's Integrated Systems‐Based Curriculum Emphasizing Inquiry‐Based Learning

The innovative curriculum of the College of Henricopolis School of Medicine is built around 17 evolutionary and developmental structural levels that serve as courses in a vectored (“simple‐to‐complex”) systems‐based approach to the Basic Sciences. Drawing upon Baconian principles, medical students learn anatomy primarily through observation, dissection, and inquiry‐based‐learning methods in small groups. Anatomy forms the core of this integrated and highly interdisciplinary curriculum. Dissection of Thiel‐embalmed cadavers (formaldehyde‐fume‐free, flexible, and of natural color) is essential to achieving learning outcomes. Professor Walter Thiel of the University of Graz, Austria developed the method which uses a complex mixture of salts and other chemicals, but very little formaldehyde, to “cure” the body. Natural color and texture of the embalmed body allow students to readily discover and make identifications of structures through their own dissections. The elasticity and distensibility of structures render them more resistant to tearing and breakage during dissection. After two years of using Thiel‐embalmed cadavers in the anatomy teaching laboratory, the quality of student dissections has been unparalleled, particularly in the extremities and perineum. Clinical procedures are also facilitated by the life‐like flexibility of structures.

Wherefore stoch-aptation?

There exists discordance between different levels of evolution because the whole often differs from the sum of the parts. Yet, it is not obvious that the new term 'stoch-aptation' clarifies these differences between evolutionary levels, especially when this term seems largely equivalent to stochastic drift, to mega-evolution, and maybe even to phenotypic plasticity with extreme environments. But this new term forces us to carefully examine what evolutionary biologists mean by randomness, drift, selection, plasticity, and mega-evolution.

Эволюционные пути электрических осцилляторов

The endogenous electrical signals play an important role in information processes occurring in living systems. They are found in living beings of different evolutionary levels from prokaryotes to multicellular eukaryotes. We hypothesized that the presence and variety of endogenous oscillators in individual organisms are connected with the way they survive, i.e. totally dependent on the community or partially independent of it. To test the hypothesis, we recorded electrical activity from individual cells and their communities in experiments with the earliest evolutionary beings, prokaryotes: cyanobacteria Oscillatoria terebriformis, Geitlerinema sp. and Halothece sp., the unicellular eukaryotes: yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and ciliates Paramecium caudatum, as well as from shellfish Helix pomatia and H. lucorum. The experimental results suggest that the variety of oscillators in the individual, the properties and functions that they perform, may provide a key to understanding the individual/social organization of living systems.

Vocal learning, prosody, and basal ganglia: don't underestimate their complexity.

Ackermann et al.'s arguments in the target article need sharpening and rethinking at both mechanistic and evolutionary levels. First, the authors' evolutionary arguments are inconsistent with recent evidence concerning nonhuman animal rhythmic abilities. Second, prosodic intonation conveys much more complex linguistic information than mere emotional expression. Finally, human adults' basal ganglia have a considerably wider role in speech modulation than Ackermann et al. surmise.

A study of cranial variations based on craniometric indices in a South Indian population.

Human skull has been the most extensively studied bone for establishing the taxonomies at evolutionary levels. Crania are also the most commonly used skeletal elements in population studies because they are known to be more genetically driven and less affected by environmental factors. The craniofacial indices are considered as clinical anthropometric parameters used in the investigation of craniofacial skeletal deformities and brain development. The present research is an attempt to study the cranial indices in the South Indian population. The sample for the study included 118 dry adult crania. All the osteometric measurements were taken using standard anthropometric instruments, and 3 indices, namely, cranial index, orbital index (OI), and index of foreman magnum (FMI), were calculated. Cranial index is calculated as (maximum cranial breadth / maximum cranial length) × 100, OI as (orbital height / orbital breadth) × 100, and FMI as (transverse diameter / anteroposterior diameter) × 100. The crania were further classified based on these indices. The cranial index ranged between 66.67 and 85.71 (mean, 78.57 [SD, 4.11]), the OI ranged between 68.89 and 102.63 (mean, 84.23 [SD, 6.64]), and the FMI ranged between 68.57 and 96.88 (mean, 79.71 [SD, 6.98]). Cranial index did not show any significant correlation with the OI (r = -0.162, P = 0.081) or the FMI (r = -0.045, P = 0.626). A statistically significant correlation was, however, observed between OI and FMI (r = -0.232, P = 0.012). The current study developed population-specific classification of crania using cranial indices. This craniometric baseline data pertaining to the craniofacial indices may be useful in presurgical planning and the postsurgical evaluation. It may also assist the forensic anthropologists in the categorization of human skulls, which may be an important component in identification of highly decomposed dead bodies and skeletal remains. More such studies need to be conducted to understand the effect of environment and genetics on the cranial shapes in different population groups.

Floral structure of Emmotum (Icacinaceae sensu stricto or Emmotaceae), a phylogenetically isolated genus of lamiids with a unique pseudotrimerous gynoecium, bitegmic ovules and monosporangiate thecae.

Icacinaceae sensu stricto consist of a group of early branching lineages of lamiids whose relationships are not yet resolved and whose detailed floral morphology is poorly known. The most bizarre flowers occur in Emmotum: the gynoecium has three locules on one side and none on the other. It has been interpreted as consisting of three fertile and two sterile carpels or of one fertile carpel with two longitudinal septa and two sterile carpels. This study focused primarily on the outer and inner morphology of the gynoecium to resolve its disputed structure, and ovule structure was also studied. In addition, the perianth and androecium were investigated. Flowers and floral buds of two Emmotum species, E. harleyi and E. nitens, were collected and fixed in the field, and then studied by scanning electron microscopy. Microtome section series were used to reconstruct their morphology. The gynoecium in Emmotum was confirmed as pentamerous, consisting of three fertile and two sterile carpels. Each of the three locules behaves as the single locule in other Icacinaceae, with the placenta of the two ovules being identical, which shows that three fertile carpels are present. In addition, it was found that the ovules are bitegmic, which is almost unique in lamiids, and that the stamens have monosporangiate thecae, which also occurs in the closely related family Oncothecaceae, but is not known from any other Icacinaceae sensu lato so far. The flowers of Emmotum have unique characters at different evolutionary levels: the pseudotrimerous gynoecium at angiosperm level, the bitegmic ovules at lamiid level and the monosporangiate thecae at family or family group level. However, in general, the floral morphology of Emmotum fits well in Icacinaceae. More comparative research on flower structure is necessary in Icacinaceae and other early branching lineages of lamiids to better understand the initial evolution of this large lineage of asterids.