Evolution Of Human Language Research Articles

Behaviour, biology and evolution of vocal learning in bats.

The comparative approach can provide insight into the evolution of human speech, language and social communication by studying relevant traits in animal systems. Bats are emerging as a model system with great potential to shed light on these processes given their learned vocalizations, close social interactions, and mammalian brains and physiology. A recent framework outlined the multiple levels of investigation needed to understand vocal learning across a broad range of non-human species, including cetaceans, pinnipeds, elephants, birds and bats. Here, we apply this framework to the current state-of-the-art in bat research. This encompasses our understanding of the abilities bats have displayed for vocal learning, what is known about the timing and social structure needed for such learning, and current knowledge about the prevalence of the trait across the order. It also addresses the biology (vocal tract morphology, neurobiology and genetics) and evolution of this trait. We conclude by highlighting some key questions that should be answered to advance our understanding of the biological encoding and evolution of speech and spoken communication. This article is part of the theme issue 'What can animal communication teach us about human language?'

Did language evolve through language change? On language change, language evolution and grammaticalization theory

The relation between language change and the process of language evolution is controversial in current linguistic theory. Some authors believe that the two processes are completely unrelated, while for others the evolution of language is (at least in part) a consequence of linguistic changes. Both models imply a very different assessment of what is changing when languages themselves change. I present an explicit model of what changes when languages change, and I show that the claim that language change is a crucial factor in explaining the evolution of human language, although suggestive and very popular, faces problems of a theoretical and empirical nature.

Communotion and the Evolution of Human Language

The past two decades has witnessed the controversy revolving around the issue of human language evolution, leading to the emergence of two schools of thought: the biolinguistic school and the sociocultural school. The former maintains that the human faculty of language is characterized by the innate recursion which stems from the neurobiological foundation of language. The latter argues that it is the social communication that accounts for the evolution of human language. This article attempts to scrutinize the beginning point of language evolution and production (i.e. the “communicative notion”, blended as “communotion”) within social communication of humans, and explore therein human language faculty of recursion with respect to the infinite hierarchical structures of human language. Human language as a tool serving human expression and communication has evolved for what is to be expressed and communicated, and developed from and with the communotion. The crucial transition between the non-verbal communotion and verbal expression has long been ignored in linguistics. This article argues that human language has evolved for, from and with the communotion of humans. The communotion is what is targeted to get expressed and communicated. It is kindled in the mind of the speaker at the outset of social communication, impelling him to communicate with others. As the target to be expressed, the well-structured elements of the communotion eventually wed with vocal sounds and give birth to the “verbal notion” --- a binary code for human language. Human language develops with the development of the communotion in the course of serving the purpose of expressing it with the vocal sounds. The human faculty of language with respect to the innate and creative recursion of the infinite hierarchical structures is in reality the faculty of the verbal manifestation of the hierarchically structured elements of the communotion.

Quantitative linguistics approach to interlanguage development: a study based on the Guangwai-Lancaster Chinese Learner Corpus

Interlanguage is crucial for the understanding of human language acquisition and development. Based on a collection of L2 Chinese texts from three levels of international students studying in China, this study demonstrates the possibility of adopting quantitative and corpus-based methods to investigate the development of interlanguage. To do so, we used Zipf’s law and related metrics to measure linguistic complexity in terms of different language styles and task types. Results show that (1) quantitative linguistic indices, including H-point and curve length, can differentiate the proficiency levels of L2 Chinese; (2) task type interacts with language style and language level with regard to their effects on language complexity; (3) interlanguage is indeed a self-organizing and self-adapting system; and (4) the Zipfian parameters can differentiate language levels. This study offers a new approach to the study of interlanguage by modeling its dynamic organization system in real language use. It has pedagogical implications for the use of language tasks and language styles with different L2 learner proficiency levels.

Music and Language in Social Interaction: Synchrony, Antiphony, and Functional Origins.

Music and language are universal human abilities with many apparent similarities relating to their acoustics, structure, and frequent use in social situations. We might therefore expect them to be understood and processed similarly, and indeed an emerging body of research suggests that this is the case. But the focus has historically been on the individual, looking at the passive listener or the isolated speaker or performer, even though social interaction is the primary site of use for both domains. Nonetheless, an important goal of emerging research is to compare music and language in terms of acoustics and structure, social interaction, and functional origins to develop parallel accounts across the two domains. Indeed, a central aim of both of evolutionary musicology and language evolution research is to understand the adaptive significance or functional origin of human music and language. An influential proposal to emerge in recent years has been referred to as the social bonding hypothesis. Here, within a comparative approach to animal communication systems, I review empirical studies in support of the social bonding hypothesis in humans, non-human primates, songbirds, and various other mammals. In support of this hypothesis, I review six research fields: (i) the functional origins of music; (ii) the functional origins of language; (iii) mechanisms of social synchrony for human social bonding; (iv) language and social bonding in humans; (v) music and social bonding in humans; and (vi) pitch, tone and emotional expression in human speech and music. I conclude that the comparative study of complex vocalizations and behaviors in various extant species can provide important insights into the adaptive function(s) of these traits in these species, as well as offer evidence-based speculations for the existence of “musilanguage” in our primate ancestors, and thus inform our understanding of the biology and evolution of human music and language.

Quenched: Five Fires for Thinking Extinction

By the light or remains of five fires, this paper considers how the current extinction crisis might be thought in relation to the future and the past, to speed and acceleration, to ir/reversibility, and to the evolution of human language and consciousness. The thought of extinction as the extinction of thought is elaborated through engagement with J.G. Ballard's The Drowned World, Jacques Derrida's ‘No Apocalypse, Not Now’ and ‘White Mythology’, and the October 2018 IPCC report. The paper concludes by speculating upon an answer to the following questions: if we know that there will be an end to thought, what will have been the end of thought? To what end do we think at all?

Vocal individuality and rhythm in male and female duet contributions of a nonhuman primate.

Duetting, or the stereotypical, repeated and often coordinated vocalizations between 2 individuals arose independently multiple times in the Order Primates. Across primate species, there exists substantial variation in terms of timing, degree of overlap, and sex-specificity of duet contributions. There is increasing evidence that primates can modify the timing of their duet contributions relative to their partner, and this vocal flexibility may have been an important precursor to the evolution of human language. Here, we present the results of a fine-scale analysis of Gursky’s spectral tarsier Tarsius spectrumgurskyae duet phrases recorded in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Specifically, we aimed to investigate individual-level variation in the female and male contributions to the duet, quantify individual- and pair-level differences in duet timing, and measure temporal precision of duetting individuals relative to their partner. We were able to classify female duet phrases to the correct individual with an 80% accuracy using support vector machines, whereas our classification accuracy for males was lower at 64%. Females were more variable than males in terms of timing between notes. All tarsier phrases exhibited some degree of overlap between callers, and tarsiers exhibited high temporal precision in their note output relative to their partners. We provide evidence that duetting tarsier individuals can modify their note output relative to their duetting partner, and these results support the idea that flexibility in vocal exchanges—a precursor to human language—evolved early in the primate lineage and long before the emergence of modern humans.

Genomic Imprinting As a Window into Human Language Evolution.

Humans spend large portions of their time and energy talking to one another, yet it remains unclear whether this activity is primarily selfish or altruistic. Here, it is shown how parent-of-origin specific gene expression-or "genomic imprinting"-may provide an answer to this question. First, it is shown why, regarding language, only altruistic or selfish scenarios are expected. Second, it is pointed out that an individual's maternal-origin and paternal-origin genes may have different evolutionary interests regarding investment into language, and that this intragenomic conflict may drive genomic imprinting which-as the direction of imprint depends upon whether investment into language is relatively selfish or altruistic-may be used to discriminate between these two possibilities. Third, predictions concerning the impact of various mutations and epimutations at imprinted loci on language pathologies are derived. In doing so, a framework is developed that highlights avenues for using intragenomic conflicts to investigate the evolutionary drivers of language.

Interlanguage: a perspective of quantitative linguistic typology

The study of interlanguage (IL) is crucial for the understanding of the acquisition and development of human languages. But there are very few empirical investigations into IL from a perspective of general linguistics or/and linguistic typology. Based on a dependency treebank of Chinese EFL learners' English writings from eight consecutive grades, we quantitatively analyzed the typological features of IL. It was found that: (1) Chinese EFL learners' IL linguistic system is a language with SV and VO preference. (2) From the perspective of linguistic typology, IL progressively approaches from native language to target language with the increase of second language proficiency. (3) Dependency direction can well measure learners' IL at different learning stages. (4) The dependency directions of adverbials and attributives can well reflect the typological changes of Chinese EFL learners' IL and learners’ language proficiency.

Linguagem, aprendizagem e desenvolvimento: perspectivas sobre aquisição linguística e funcionamento cerebral

What makes us human? Language takes the lead in this dispute that has not been settled by science. What is known is that only humans have developed an apparatus fit for the production of sounds in all the known languages coupled with a brain circuitry that enables communication to become not only transactional, but also a matter of collaboration and cocreation. What is proposed in this review is to examine the relationship between language, thought, and learning; the hypothesis of linguistic determinism and relativism and its implication for learning and development; current ideas on the evolution of human language; connections between linguistic development and genetic inheritance of language capacity; the difference between first and second language acquisition; and how correct identification of dyslexia and aphasia can inform current understanding of the process of language acquisition and development.

Wild chimpanzees deprived a leopard of its kill: Implications for the origin of hominin confrontational scavenging

This study reports the first observed case of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) obtaining animal prey freshly killed by a sympatric leopard (Panthera pardus) and scavenging it with the leopard still nearby. This observation has important implications for the emergence of confrontational scavenging, which may have played a significant role in human evolution. Many scholars agree that eating meat became important during human evolution, and hominins first obtained meat by scavenging. However, it is debatable whether scavenging behavior was “passive” or “confrontational (power).” The latter is more dangerous, as it requires facing the original predator, and it is thus considered to have been important for the evolution of several human traits, including cooperation and language. Chimpanzees do scavenge meat, although rarely, but no previous evidence of confrontational scavenging has hitherto emerged. Thus, it was assumed that they are averse to confrontation with even leopard-sized predators. However, in the observed case the chimpanzees frequently emitted waa barks, which indicated that they were aware of the leopard's presence but they nevertheless continued to eat the scavenged meat. In addition, we compiled and reviewed 49 cases of chimpanzee encounters with animal carcasses in the Mahale Mountains of Tanzania in 1980–2017. Chimpanzees scavenged meat in 36.7% of these cases, and tended to eat the meat when it was fresh or if the animal species was usually hunted by chimpanzees. However, no evidence indicated that carcasses were avoided when leopard involvement was likely. These results suggest that chimpanzee-sized hominins could potentially confront and deprive leopard-size carnivores of meat.

언어유형론적 관점에서 본 중국어 방언의 결과상/진행상 표지의 변이 유형과 발전 기제 : 동사에 후행하는 ‘着’류와 ‘在’류 형식을 중심으로

In this paper, we have investigated the variations of resultative and progressive aspect makers in 153 Chinese dialects corresponding to ‘zhe(着)’ and ‘zai(在)’ following the verbs in Mandarin. This study shows that there are various asymmetrical phenomena of ‘zhe(着)’ and ‘zai(在)’ in terms of their distributions, functions or usage overlapping, and that there are many different types of aspectual systems in different dialects: the same form can function as a resultative aspect or a progressive aspect while several different forms in a dialect can have the same aspectual function.BR In Chinese dialects, ‘zhe(着)’-type markers commonly indicate a state resulting from a preceding action, referred to as ‘resultative aspect’. They are grammaticalized from the verbal complement, and in many Chinese dialects ‘zhe(着)’-type markers are developed to progressive aspect makers through metaphoric semantic expansion. It’s why many dialects including Mandarin have ‘zhe(着)’-type markers indicating stative resultative meaning and active progressive meaning.BR In many Chinese dialects, ‘zai(在)’-type markers following verbs denote the state resulting from action. In some dialects, there may be cases that ‘zai(在)’-type markers are not followed by the locative phrases. It shows that ‘zai(在)’ can be regarded as an resultative aspect maker functionally equivalent to ‘zhe(着)’. In Mandarin, “Zai chifan ne(在吃饭呢)” and “Chi zhe fan ne(吃着饭呢)” have similar aspectual meanings which are layered into the same aspectual category through the grammaticalization process.BR In Chinese dialects, ‘zhe(着)’-type markers which are grammaticalized from the verb with the meaning of ‘attachment’ always follow verbs, whereas ‘zai(在)’-type markers can either precede verbs or follow verbs. It is due to the structural and semantic constraints. Both ‘zhe(着)’ and ‘zai(在)’ preceded by a verb follows the Principle of Temporal Sequence. But ‘zai(在)’ preceding a verb is grammaticalized from the verb that took the whole verb phrase as its object, while ‘zhe(着)’ can not have such a structural origin.BR In this paper, we have classified and analyzed the various aspectual types and systems of ‘zhe(着)’ and ‘zai(在)’ in Chinese dialects. This study on the resultative aspect and progressive aspect with empirical evidence and theoretical explanation shows that the development of the Chinese aspectual system has been following the universal tendency of human language evolution along the path of grammaticalization of aspect markers.

Combinatoriality in the vocal systems of nonhuman animals.

A key challenge in the field of human language evolution is the identification of the selective conditions that gave rise to language's generative nature. Comparative data on nonhuman animals provides a powerful tool to investigate similarities and differences among nonhuman and human communication systems and to reveal convergent evolutionary mechanisms. In this article, we provide an overview of the current evidence for combinatorial structures found in the vocal system of diverse species. We show that considerable structural diversity exits across and within species in the forms of combinatorial structures used. Based on this we suggest that a fine-grained classification and differentiation of combinatoriality is a useful approach permitting systematic comparisons across animals. Specifically, this will help to identify factors that might promote the emergence of combinatoriality and, crucially, whether differences in combinatorial mechanisms might be driven by variations in social and ecological conditions or cognitive capacities. This article is categorized under: Cognitive Biology > Evolutionary Roots of Cognition Linguistics > Evolution of Language.

In memorium: Koko, a remarkable gorilla.

In memorium: Koko, a remarkable gorilla.

Mind the gap – moving beyond the dichotomy between intentional gestures and emotional facial and vocal signals of nonhuman primates

Abstract Despite the variety of theories suggesting how human language might have evolved, very few consider the potential role of emotions in such scenarios. The few existing theories jointly highlight that gaining control over the production of emotional communication was crucial for establishing and maintaining larger social groups. This in turn resulted in the development of more complex social emotions and the corresponding sophisticated socio-cognitive skills to understand others’ communicative behavior, providing the grounds for language to emerge. Importantly, these theories propose that the ability of controlling emotional communication is a uniquely human trait, an assumption that we will challenge. By taking a comparative approach, we discuss recent findings from behavioral and neurobiological studies from our closest relatives, the non-human primates, on the extent of control over their gestural, facial and vocal signals. This demonstrates that research foci differ drastically across these modalities, which further enhances the traditional dichotomy between emotional, involuntary facial and vocal expressions in contrast to intentionally, voluntarily produced gestures. Based on this brief overview, we point to gaps of knowledge in primate communication research and suggest how investigating emotional expressions in our closest relatives might enrich the road map towards the evolution of human language.

Social manipulation, turn-taking and cooperation in apes

AbstractThis paper outlines how the focus on how communicative signals might emerge and how the capacity to interpret them might develop, does not yet explain what type of motivation is required to actually deal with those signals. Without the consistent production of appropriate responses to the production of communicative signals, there would be no point in producing any signal. If language is a tool to accomplish things with others, we need to understand what would lead to cooperation. The first step consists in avoiding the blind belief that all cooperation requires some prosocial attitude. A great deal of cooperation can occur while each participant in the interaction is selfishly attempting to maximize their own benefits or minimizing damaging consequences.I describe how different types of turn-taking can be achieved via different levels of cognitive complexity and how interpretive turn-taking requires a great deal of cognitive abilities that great apes possess. Finally, I provide empirical evidence of social manipulation in non-human primates. Given our awareness of the occurrence of social manipulation during cooperation among human adults, it seems necessary to reconsider to what degree human communication and language evolution require unique prosocial motivations.

Compositionality in animals and humans.

A key step in understanding the evolution of human language involves unravelling the origins of language’s syntactic structure. One approach seeks to reduce the core of syntax in humans to a single principle of recursive combination, merge, for which there is no evidence in other species. We argue for an alternative approach. We review evidence that beneath the staggering complexity of human syntax, there is an extensive layer of nonproductive, nonhierarchical syntax that can be fruitfully compared to animal call combinations. This is the essential groundwork that must be explored and integrated before we can elucidate, with sufficient precision, what exactly made it possible for human language to explode its syntactic capacity, transitioning from simple nonproductive combinations to the unrivalled complexity that we now have.

Integrative and Separationist Perspectives: Understanding the Causal Role of Cultural Transmission in Human Language Evolution

Biological evolution and cultural evolution are distinct evolutionary processes; they are apparent also in human language, where both processes contributed in shaping its evolution. However, the nature of the interaction between these two processes is still debated today. It is often claimed that the emergence of modern language was preceded by the evolution of a language-ready brain: the latter is usually intended as a product of biological evolution, while the former is believed to be the consequence of cultural processes. I label this account separationist, and I argue that current evidence coming from the archaeological and fossil record suggests that cultural evolution has played a pivotal role in shaping not only modern language but also the language-ready brain. I label the latter the integrative perspective. I analyze the two accounts from two different conceptual frameworks, the Standard Evolutionary Theory and the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis, and I discuss the limits of the sharp proximate–ultimate distinction in this specific case study arguing in favor of a causal feedback model. I extend the argument to the debate on gradual and punctuational evolutionary rates, suggesting that the debate on patterns (gradualism versus punctuationism) in language evolution should leave room for discussion of the nature of the processes involved in producing those patterns, providing reasons in favor of the eco-evolutionary feedback dynamics underlying the integrative perspective.

Genomics studies on musical aptitude, music perception, and practice.

When searching for genetic markers inherited together with musical aptitude, genes affecting inner ear development and brain function were identified. The alpha-synuclein gene (SNCA), located in the most significant linkage region of musical aptitude, was overexpressed when listening and performing music. The GATA-binding protein 2 gene (GATA2) was located in the best associated region of musical aptitude and regulates SNCA in dopaminergic neurons, thus linking DNA- and RNA-based studies of music-related traits together. In addition to SNCA, several other genes were linked to dopamine metabolism. Mutations in SNCA predispose to Lewy-body dementia and cause Parkinson disease in humans and affect song production in songbirds. Several other birdsong genes were found in transcriptome analysis, suggesting a common evolutionary background of sound perception and production in humans and songbirds. Regions of positive selection with musical aptitude contained genes affecting auditory perception, cognitive performance, memory, human language development, and song perception and production of songbirds. The data support the role of dopaminergic pathway and their link to the reward mechanism as a molecular determinant in positive selection of music. Integration of gene-level data from the literature across multiple species prioritized activity-dependent immediate early genes as candidate genes in musical aptitude and listening to and performing music.

Archaeolinguistics As A Way To Overcome The Impasse In Comparative Linguistics

The paper exposes some essential points of our one and a half decade research results within new approach to study prehistoric stages of human language development mainly in times of ergaster-erectus domination and reflects our reaction to the protracted conceptual crisis in the comparative linguistics. As a result of fundamentally incorrectly stated goals, most of the researchers artificially limited themselves both by the defined scope of the problems to solve and by the methods used. Becoming tightly tied knot of up to now unsolved intrinsic contradictions, today comparative linguistics needs radical change. We have developed a synthetic approach that has proved its effectiveness. Our model is well aligned with prehistoric data of auxiliary historical disciplines and even IBM Genographic project. The results offer further opportunities for interesting studies.