Coronal Evolution Research Articles

THE STORAGE AND DISSIPATION OF MAGNETIC ENERGY IN THE QUIET SUN CORONA DETERMINED FROM SDO /HMI MAGNETOGRAMS

In recent years, higher cadence, higher resolution observations have revealed the quiet-Sun photosphere to be complex and rapidly evolving. Since magnetic fields anchored in the photosphere extend up into the solar corona, it is expected that the small-scale coronal magnetic field exhibits similar complexity. For the first time, the quiet-Sun coronal magnetic field is continuously evolved through a series of non-potential, quasi-static equilibria, deduced from magnetograms observed by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory, where the photospheric boundary condition which drives the coronal evolution exactly reproduces the observed magnetograms. The build-up, storage, and dissipation of magnetic energy within the simulations is studied. We find that the free magnetic energy built up and stored within the field is sufficient to explain small-scale, impulsive events such as nanoflares. On comparing with coronal images of the same region, the energy storage and dissipation visually reproduces many of the observed features. The results indicate that the complex small-scale magnetic evolution of a large number of magnetic features is a key element in explaining the nature of the solar corona.

Impact of polymer shell on the formation and time evolution of nanoparticle–protein corona

The study of protein corona formation on nanoparticles (NPs) represents an actual main issue in colloidal, biomedical and toxicological sciences. However, little is known about the influence of polymer shells on the formation and time evolution of protein corona onto functionalized NPs. Therefore, silica-poly(ethylene glycol) core–shell nanohybrids (SNPs@PEG) with different polymer molecular weights (MW) were synthesized and exhaustively characterized. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) at different concentrations (0.1–6wt%) was used as model protein to study protein corona formation and time evolution. For pristine SNPs and SNPs@PEG (MW=350g/mol), zeta potential at different incubation times show a dynamical evolution of the nanoparticle–protein corona. Oppositely, for SNPs@PEG with MW≥2000g/mol a significant suppression of corona formation and time evolution was observed. Furthermore, AFM investigations suggest a different orientation (side-chain or perpendicular) and penetration depth of BSA toward PEGylated surfaces depending on the polymer length which may explain differences in protein corona evolution.

Formation and evolution of the midlands of Venus: Geological features and structures, stratigraphic relationships and geologic history of the Fredegonde area (V-57)

The topographic midlands on Venus comprise about 80% of the surface and an understanding of their mode of formation is essential to unraveling the geologic and geodynamic history of the planet. We explore this question by undertaking a comprehensive geological mapping of the Fredegonde Quadrangle (V-57, 50–75°S, 60–120°E, 1:5M scale) that represents the transition zone from the midlands to the lowlands at the edge of Lada Terra. We report on the geologic units and structures and the sequence of events and, thus, the major stages in the evolution of this region of the midlands. At earlier stages of evolution of the long-wavelength topography, broad (hundreds of kilometers wide) and relatively low (1–1.5km high) topographic ridges formed due to sequential development of deformation zones, first of contractional ridge belts (NW orientation) and then crosscut by extensional groove belts (NE orientation). Arcuate swarms of graben within groove belts often form the rims of coronae and represent their tectonic component. This suggests that groove belts and coronae within the quadrangle formed simultaneously. Intersections of these deformation zones caused separation of the topography of the region into a series of broad, shallow equidimensional basins many hundreds of kilometers across and currently hundreds of meters up to a kilometer deep. Thus, the principal topographic features within the quadrangle were established near the beginning of its observable geological record. The basins then remained sites of accumulation of successive volcanic plains units such as shield plains (psh) and the lower unit of regional plains (rp1). The flows of the younger plains, such as upper unit of regional plains (rp2) and lobate plains (pl), are less voluminous, and flow down the current topographic gradients. This implies that the major topographic pattern of the Fredegonde quadrangle has been stable since its establishment. Further evidence for this is that the vast volcanic plains units (psh and rp1) that postdate the heavily tectonized units of the deformation zones are only mildly deformed. This suggests that since the emplacement of shield plains, volcanism has been the primary geologic process and that the time of formation of unit psh corresponds to a major change from the earlier regime dominated by tectonics to the later volcanically dominated regime. Consistent age relationships among the main volcanic units within the quadrangle from older shield plains, through regional plains, to lobate plains, documents an evolution in volcanic style. Shield plains were formed from small eruptions from ubiquitous small shield volcanoes and are interpreted to be derived from broadly distributed and shallow magmatic sources. The lower unit of regional plains is widely distributed but vents and flow fronts are rare; this unit is interpreted to represent massive and probably short-lived flood basalts-like eruptions that filled in the lowlands basins. The upper unit of regional plains (rp2) and lobate plains (pl) are associated with localized and distinctive sources, such as late-stage volcanic activity at coronae. Thus, the tectonic stage of evolution of coronae (formation of the rims) and the volcanic stage when coronae served as magmatic centers and sourced lava flows, were separated in time by the emplacement of the shield and lower regional plains. How and when did the major components of Venus midland topography form? Clearly, in the Fredegonde quadrangle, regional deformation produced the deformation belts and groove belts/coronae in the earliest phases, and this topography formed the basis for the next, volcanic stage of emplacement (filling of the basins), with coronae-associated volcanism following this phase. The broad topography resulting from this early phase has persisted until the present. We compare this tectonic-volcanic sequence and history of topography in the Fredegonde quadrangle with other areas on Venus and find that the sequence has widespread application globally, and that the history of topography may be similar planet-wide.

A DATA-DRIVEN MODEL FOR THE GLOBAL CORONAL EVOLUTION

This work is devoted to the construction of a data-driven model for the study of the dynamic evolution of the global corona that can respond continuously to the changing of the photospheric magnetic field. The data-driven model consists of a surface flux transport (SFT) model and a global three-dimensional (3D) magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) coronal model. The SFT model is employed to produce the global time-varying and self-consistent synchronic snapshots of the photospheric magnetic field as the input to drive our 3D numerical global coronal AMR-CESE-MHD model on an overset grid of Yin-Yang overlapping structure. The SFT model and the 3D global coronal model are coupled through the boundary condition of the projected characteristic method. Numerical results of the coronal evolution from 1996 September 4 to October 29 provide a good comparison with multiply observed coronal images.

Magnetic helicity ejections and coronal activity

AbstractMagnetic helicity quantifies the degree of linkage and/or twistedness in the magnetic field. It is probably the only physical quantity which is approximately conserved even in resistive MHD. This makes it an ideal tool for the exploration of the physics of solar eruptions. In this article, I discuss the sources of magnetic helicity injected into active regions and I point out that coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are probably necessary to remove at least part of the excess helicity produced in the Sun. I also discuss the importance of magnetic helicity in the overall coronal evolution that may lead to eruptions.

Helicity transport from solar convection zone to interplanetary space

AbstractMagnetic helicity is a physical quantity that describes field topology. It is also a conserved quantity as Berger in 1984 demonstrated that the total magnetic helicity is still conserved in the corona even when there is a fast magnetic reconnection. It is generally believed that solar magnetic fields, together with their helicity, are created in the convection zone by various dynamo processes. These fields and helicity are transported into the corona through solar photosphere and finally released into the interplanetary space via various processes such as coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar winds. Here I will give a brief review on our recent works, first on helicity observations on the photosphere and how to understand these observations via dynamo models. Mostly, I will talk about what are the possible consequences of magnetic helicity accumulation in the corona, namely, the formation of magnetic flux ropes, CMEs taking place as an unavoidable product of coronal evolution, and flux emergences as a trigger of CMEs. Finally, I will address on in what a form magnetic field in the interplanetary space would accommodate a large amount of magnetic helicity that solar dynamo processes have been continuously producing.

MAGNETIC HELICITY OF SELF-SIMILAR AXISYMMETRIC FORCE-FREE FIELDS

In this paper we continue our theoretical studies on addressing what are the possible consequences of magnetic helicity accumulation in the solar corona. Our previous studies suggest that coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are natural products of coronal evolution as a consequence of magnetic helicity accumulation and the triggering of CMEs by surface processes such as flux emergence also have their origin in magnetic helicity accumulation. Here we use the same mathematical approach to study the magnetic helicity of axisymmetric power-law force-free fields, but focus on a family whose surface flux distributions are defined by self-similar force-free fields. The semi-analytical solutions of the axisymmetric self-similar force-free fields enable us to discuss the properties of force-free fields possessing a huge amount of accumulated magnetic helicity. Our study suggests that there may be an absolute upper bound on the total magnetic helicity of all bipolar axisymmetric force-free fields. And with the increase of accumulated magnetic helicity, the force-free field approaches being fully opened up, with Parker-spiral-like structures present around a current-sheet layer as evidence of magnetic helicity in the interplanetary space. It is also found that among the axisymmetric force-free fields having the same boundary flux distribution, the one that is self-similar is the one possessing the maximum amount of total magnetic helicity. This possibly gives a physical reason why self-similar fields are often found in astrophysical bodies, where magnetic helicity accumulation is presumably also taking place.

The Evolution of the Protein Corona around Nanoparticles: A Test Study

The importance of the protein corona formed around nanoparticles upon entering a biological fluid has recently been highlighted. This corona is, when sufficiently long-lived, thought to govern the particles' biological fate. However, even this long-lived "hard" corona evolves and re-equilibrates as particles pass from one biological fluid to another, and may be an important feature for long-term fate. Here we show the evolution of the protein corona as a result of transfer of nanoparticles from one biological fluid (plasma) into another (cytosolic fluid), a simple illustrative model for the uptake of nanoparticles into cells. While no direct comparison can be made to what would happen in, for example, the uptake pathway, the results confirm that significant evolution of the corona occurs in the second biological solution, but that the final corona contains a "fingerprint" of its history. This could be evolved to map the transport pathways utilized by nanoparticles, and eventually to predict nanoparticle fate and behavior.

NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF A CORONAL MASS EJECTION FROM AN ANEMONE ACTIVE REGION: RECONNECTION AND DEFLECTION OF THE 2005 AUGUST 22 ERUPTION

We present a numerical investigation of the coronal evolution of a coronal mass ejection (CME) on 2005 August 22 using a 3-D thermodynamics magnetohydrodynamic model, the SWMF. The source region of the eruption was anemone active region (AR) 10798, which emerged inside a coronal hole. We validate our modeled corona by producing synthetic extreme ultraviolet (EUV) images, which we compare to EIT images. We initiate the CME with an out-of-equilibrium flux rope with an orientation and chirality chosen in agreement with observations of a H-alpha filament. During the eruption, one footpoint of the flux rope reconnects with streamer magnetic field lines and with open field lines from the adjacent coronal hole. It yields an eruption which has a mix of closed and open twisted field lines due to interchange reconnection and only one footpoint line-tied to the source region. Even with the large-scale reconnection, we find no evidence of strong rotation of the CME as it propagates. We study the CME deflection and find that the effect of the Lorentz force is a deflection of the CME by about 3 deg/Rsun towards the East during the first 30 minutes of the propagation. We also produce coronagraphic and EUV images of the CME, which we compare with real images, identifying a dimming region associated with the reconnection process. We discuss the implication of our results for the arrival at Earth of CMEs originating from the limb and for models to explain the presence of open field lines in magnetic clouds.

THE COOLING OF CORONAL PLASMAS. III. ENTHALPY TRANSFER AS A MECHANISM FOR ENERGY LOSS

The cooling of impulsively heated coronal loops is examined with emphasis on the phase when optically thin radiation is dominant over conduction. It is shown that this regime cannot be described as purely 'radiative cooling' because an enthalpy flux to the transition region plays an important and, on occasions, a dominant role. The scaling between coronal temperature and density (T {proportional_to} n {sup {delta}}) during such cooling is reconsidered. The parameter {delta} is determined by the relative importance of the coronal radiative losses to the enthalpy flux to the transition region, which in turn powers the transition region radiation. It is seen that {delta} is in the region of 2 for short loops, while gravitational stratification reduces {delta} to below 2 and values of 1 occur for very long, tenuous loops. This can be understood by noting that for given transition region parameters (and hence required inward enthalpy flux), stratification reduces the coronal losses. It is thus appropriate to refer to this stage of coronal evolution as 'radiative-enthalpy cooling'.

A DEEPUBVRICCD PHOTOMETRY OF SIX OPEN STAR CLUSTERS IN THE GALACTIC ANTICENTER REGION

We present deep UBVRI CCD photometry of six open star clusters situated in the Galactic anticenter region (l~ 120-200?). The sample includes three unstudied (Be 6, Be 77, King 17) and three partly studied open clusters (Be 9, NGC?2186, and NGC?2304). The fundamental parameters have been determined by comparing color-color and color-magnitude diagrams with the theoretical models. The structural parameters and morphology of the clusters were discussed on the basis of radial density profiles and isodensity contours, respectively. The isodensity contours show that all the clusters have asymmetric shapes. An investigation of structural parameters indicates that the evolution of core and corona of the clusters is mainly controlled by internal relaxation processes.

FLUX ROPE FORMATION PRECEDING CORONAL MASS EJECTION ONSET

We analyze the evolution of a sigmoidal (S-shaped) active region toward eruption, which includes a coronal mass ejection (CME) but leaves part of the filament in place. The X-ray sigmoid is found to trace out three different magnetic topologies in succession: a highly sheared arcade of coronal loops in its long-lived phase, a bald-patch separatrix surface (BPSS) in the hours before the CME, and the first flare loops in its major transient intensity enhancement. The coronal evolution is driven by photospheric changes which involve the convergence and cancellation of flux elements under the sigmoid and filament. The data yield unambiguous evidence for the existence of a BPSS, and hence a flux rope, in the corona prior to the onset of the CME.

THE NATURE OF FLARE RIBBONS IN CORONAL NULL-POINT TOPOLOGY

Flare ribbons are commonly attributed to the low-altitude impact, along the footprints of separatrices or quasi-separatrix layers (QSLs), of particle beams accelerated through magnetic reconnection. If reconnection occurs at a three-dimensional coronal magnetic null point, the footprint of the dome-shaped fan surface would map a closed circular ribbon. This paper addresses the following issues: does the entire circular ribbon brighten simultaneously, as expected because all fan field lines pass through the null point? And since the spine separatrices are singular field lines, do spine-related ribbons look like compact kernels? What can we learn from these observations about current sheet formation and magnetic reconnection in a null-point topology? The present study addresses these questions by analyzing Transition Region and Coronal Explorer and Solar and Heliospheric Observatory/Michelson Doppler Imager observations of a confined flare presenting a circular ribbon. Using a potential field extrapolation, we linked the circular shape of the ribbon with the photospheric mapping of the fan field lines originating from a coronal null point. Observations show that the flare ribbon outlining the fan lines brightens sequentially along the counterclockwise direction and that the spine-related ribbons are elongated. Using the potential field extrapolation as initial condition, we conduct a low-{beta} resistivemore » magnetohydrodynamics simulation of this observed event. We drive the coronal evolution by line-tied diverging boundary motions, so as to emulate the observed photospheric flow pattern associated with some magnetic flux emergence. The numerical analysis allows us to explain several observed features of the confined flare. The vorticity induced in the fan by the prescribed motions causes the spines to tear apart along the fan. This leads to formation of a thin current sheet and induces null-point reconnection. We also find that the null point and its associated topological structure is embedded within QSLs, already present in the asymmetric potential field configuration. We find that the QSL footprints correspond to the observed elongated spine ribbons. Finally, we observe that before and after reconnecting at the null point, all field lines undergo slipping and slip-running reconnection within the QSLs. Field lines, and therefore particle impacts, slip or slip-run according to their distance from the spine, in directions and over distances that are compatible with the observed dynamics of the ribbons.« less

The MHD coupling between coronal dynamics and photospheric motions

Context. Whether it be the heating problem or the destabilization of coronal structures, use is often made of the so-called “line-tying” boundary conditions, which amounts to imposing the photospheric velocity at the photosphere as a boundary condition for coronal dynamics. Directly coupling the low beta coronal evolution to prescribed photospheric motions of the magnetic footpoints allows strong magnetic energy accumulation in the corona. But this amounts to ignoring possible feedback from the coronal loops on photospheric motions, a neglect that is commonly justified by the strong density contrast between the photosphere and the corona. On the other hand, the energy injected into the corona comes from the photosphere, so in principle the coronal loop might act as a conduit communicating photospheric dynamics from one region to another.

Magnetic Field Confinement in the Corona: The Role of Magnetic Helicity Accumulation

A loss of magnetic field confinement is believed to be the cause of coronal mass ejections (CMEs), a major form of solar activity in the corona. The mechanisms for magnetic energy storage are crucial in understanding how a field may possess enough free energy to overcome the Aly limit and open up. Previously, we have pointed out that the accumulation of magnetic helicity in the corona plays a significant role in storing magnetic energy. In this paper, we investigate another hydromagnetic consequence of magnetic-helicity accumulation. We propose a conjecture that there is an upper bound on the total magnetic helicity that a force-free field can contain. This is directly related to the hydromagnetic property that force-free fields in unbounded space have to be self-confining. Although a mathematical proof of this conjecture for any field configuration is formidable, its plausibility can be demonstrated with the properties of several families of power-law, axisymmetric force-free fields. We put forth mathematical evidence, as well as numerical, indicating that an upper bound on the magnetic helicity may exist for such fields. Thus, the accumulation of magnetic helicity in excess of this upper bound would initiate a nonequilibrium situation, resulting in a CME expulsion as a natural product of coronal evolution.

The Role of the Kink Instability of a Long-Lived Active Region AR 9604

We have traced the long-term evolution of a non-Hale active region composed of NOAA 9604–9632–9672–9704–9738, which displayed strong transient activity with associated geomagnetic effects from September to December, 2001. By studying the development of spot-group and line-of-sight magnetic field together with the evolution of Hα filaments, the EUV and X-ray corona (TRACE 171 A, Yohkoh/SXT), we have found that the magnetic structure of the active region exhibited a continuous clockwise rotation throughout its entire life. Vector magnetic data obtained from Huairou Solar Observing Station (HSOS) and full-disk line-of-sight magnetograms from SOHO/MDI allowed the determination of the best-fit force-free parameter (proxy of twist), αbest, and the systematic tilt angle (proxy of writhe) which were both found to take positive values. Soft X-ray coronal loops from Yohkoh/SXT displayed a pronounced forward-sigmoid structure in period of NOAA 9704. These observations imply that the magnetic flux tube (loops) with the same handedness (right) of the writhe and the twist rotated clockwise in the solar atmosphere for a long time. We argue that the continuous clockwise rotation of the long-lived active region may be a manifestation that a highly right-hand twisted and kinked flux tube was emerging through the photosphere and chromosphere into the corona.

Coronae and Novae in the Hecate Chasma Deformation Area

It is obvious that Venusian volcanotectonic features, namely, coronae and novae, are somehow connected to each other. First, approximately half of the novae are located in the interior region of coronae. In addition, it is proposed that novae represent either the first or a later stage of corona evolution. However, the affects of novae structures on the properties of a corona have been uncertain. The analysis of the Hecate Chasma area shows that coronae with associated novae are different from those coronae with no associated novae structures: corona-nova joint structures are located at higher altitudes and show more prominent volcanism than single coronae. Furthermore, the latest morphologically recorded activity of corona-novae structures is, in general, younger than the latest morphologically recorded activity of the lone coronae. Therefore, it is apparent that the associated novae have a noticeable affect to the characteristics of the adjoining coronae. A stratigraphical analysis of the area has established that the region shows the age relationships expected from the global-scale stratigraphy model by Basilevsky and Head (1995a, 1995b, 2000). In addition, the analysis showed that the formation of coronae and novae cannot be exclusively connected to a certain time era in Venusian geological history, at least not in that particular area.

Coronal Evolution of the Sun in Time: High‐Resolution X‐Ray Spectroscopy of Solar Analogs with Different Ages

We investigate the long-term evolution of X-ray coronae of solar analogs based on high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy and photometry with XMM-Newton. Six nearby main-sequence G stars with ages between ≈0.1 and ≈1.6 Gyr and rotation periods between ≈1 and 12.4 days have been observed. We use the X-ray spectra to derive coronal element abundances of C, N, O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, and Fe and the coronal emission measure distribution (EMD). We find that the abundances change from an inverse first ionization potential (FIP) distribution in stars with ages around 0.1 Gyr to a solar-type FIP distribution in stars at ages of 0.3 Gyr and beyond. This transformation is coincident with a steep decline of nonthermal radio emission. The results are in qualitative agreement with a simple model in which the stream of electrons in magnetic fields suppresses diffusion of low-FIP ions from the chromosphere into the corona. The coronal emission measure distributions show shapes characterized by power laws on each side of the EMD peak. The latter shifts from temperatures of about 10 MK in the most rapidly rotating, young stars to temperatures around 4 MK in the oldest target considered here. The power-law index on the cooler side of the EMD exceeds expected slopes for static loops, with typical values being 1.5-3. We interpret this slope with a model in which the coronal emission is due to a superposition of stochastically occurring flares, with an occurrence rate that is distributed in radiated energy E as a power law, dN/dE ∝ E-α, as previously found for solar and stellar flares. We obtain the relevant power-law index α from the slope of the high-temperature tail of the EMD. Our EMDs indicate α ≈ 2.2-2.8, in excellent agreement with values previously derived from light curves of magnetically active stars. Modulation with timescales reminiscent of flares is found in the light curves of all our targets. Several strong flares are also observed. We use our α-values to simulate light curves and compare them with the observed light curves. We thus derive the range of flare energies required to explain the light-curve modulation. More active stars require a larger range of flare energies than less active stars within the framework of this simplistic model. In an overall scenario, we propose that flaring activity plays a larger role in more active stars. In this model, the higher flare rate is responsible both for the higher average coronal temperature and the high coronal X-ray luminosity, two parameters that are indeed found to be correlated.

Winds and Ejecta from Cool Stars

As young stars evolve from the time of their formation onto the main sequence, they lose mass in a variety of ways. At the very earliest stages, mass loss may be in the form of jets associated with accretion from a surrounding disk. These cool jets carve out the surrounding gas and their changes over time may indicate changes in the star-formation process. At later stages, mass loss is predominantly in the form of a hot, magnetically channelled wind that carries mass, but more importantly angular momentum, away from the star. This wind determines the rotational evolution of cool stars and is intimately connected to the process of field generation deep inside the star. Mass loss also occurs in a sporadic way in the form of the ejection of cool clouds of coronal gas. The coronal distribution and evolution of these clouds (or prominences) gives us vital clues about the structure and short-timescale evolution of stellar coronae. In this review I will discuss recent advances in our understanding of the coronae, winds and accretion processes in cool stars and show how these processes may be related at different stages of evolution. To search for other articles by the author(s) go to: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abstract_service.html

Magnetohydrodynamic Modeling of Interplanetary CMEs

Heliospheric models of coronal mass ejection (CME) propagation and evolution provide an important insight into the dynamics of CMEs and are a valuable tool for interpretating interplanetary in situ observations. Moreover, they represent a virtual laboratory for exploring conditions and regions of space that are not conveniently or currently accessible by spacecraft. We summarize our recent advances in modeling the properties and evolution of CMEs in the solar wind. We describe our current state of research with three examples: 1) interpreting the global context of in situ observations; 2) identifying new phenomena in the simulations; and 3) computing geoeffective phenomena. We conclude by discussing what topics will likely be important for models to address in the future.