Everyday Work Activities Research Articles

The Morality of Everyday Activities: Not the Right, But the Good Thing To Do

This article attempts to understand and develop the morality of everyday activities in organizations. Aristotle’s concept of phronesis, practical wisdom, is utilized to describe the morality of the everyday work activities at two call centres of an Australian insurance company. The ethnographic data suggests that ethical judgements at the lower level of the organization are practical rather than theoretical; emergent rather than static; ambiguous rather than clear-cut; and particular rather than universal. Ethical codes are of limited value here and it is argued that by developing phronesis members of the organization can improve their capacity to deal with this ethical complexity.

How do HRD practitioners describe learning at work?

The study focuses on the question of how HRD personnel employed in a large multinational company perceive learning at work. We are interested in how HR development staff describe learning at the individual, collective and organizational levels. The participants were Finnish and Chinese human resource professionals (n = 17) who used an asynchronous web-based tool to study adult education. The empirical data consist of all the texts sent to a web-based discussion forum. The findings showed that the HRD practitioners' views of learning covered quite evenly all three levels of organizational learning. The practitioners paid special attention to practical learning taking place in connection with everyday work activities, to communication and collaborative learning and to the development of a learning organization. This reflects the multifaceted nature of learning at work and the necessity of using HRD to integrate individual- and organizational-level needs in order to enhance organizational learning. The participants frequently reported that they found this a demanding task that required a clear 'understanding of humans, people in the organizations and their learning'. If organizational learning is to meet its current challenges it should take note of messages like these from HRD practitioners, which emphasise the diversity of learning experiences. Promoting a shared understanding and especially awareness and recognition of the fundamental issues associated with learning at work is a possible first step.

Obesity epidemics: secular trend or globalization consequence? Beyond the interaction between genetic and environmental factors

The WHO has declared overweight and obesity as one of the top 10 risk conditions in the world and one of the top 5 in industrialized countries.1 Studies on twins, adopted children, family aggregation and ethnic groups confirm the contribution of genes to the development of obesity.2–4 Obesity-predisposing genes encode the molecular components of the physiological systems regulating energy balance, i.e. energy intake and expenditure, and consequently body composition (including fat stores).5 Studies of ethnic groups and in developing countries support the thrifty genotype hypothesis whereby genes, selected through the million-year-long era of hunter–gatherers to afford a specific environmental pattern (including several hours of physical activity per day, continuously alternating of periods of feast with famine, etc.), are nowadays believed to predispose to obesity and diabetes.6 Actually this purported predisposing genetic pattern, developed to save energy, has produced an increasing prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in the agricultural (last 8–10,000 years) or recent industrialized (last 200 years) societies. The obesity epidemics actually exploded, as clearly appears in the US society, particularly in developing ages and in non caucasian populations, from the “80s onward, in less than one generation and not during the whole last century!”7,8 This is clearly confirmed by the massive epidemics of obesity and diabetes in aboriginal societies, very recently faced with westernized life styles.6 New, aggressive environmental and cultural factors have certainly played a role. As a matter of fact, food industry is currently able to manipulate the so called “food pyramid” by encouraging the consumption of low fat foods however enriched in simple sugars able to produce insulin-resistance and elevated post-prandial metabolic efficiency just as the harshly “banned” saturated fats do.9,10 This has led a tremendous confusion among the “consumers” and unspecialized physicians who have become “attracted” by irrational alternatives.11,12 Extreme but unrecognized sedentarism, in everyday work and leisure activities, and in the time spent to reach the working place, as well as the increase in elderly population have also reached their historical peak and do not tend to plateau. The whole process appears to be irreversible and spread all over the world! Nevertheless, overweight and obesity epidemics seem concomitant with another aspect of the very recent globalization process, the worldwide homogenization of the genetic and environmental, as well as socio-economic and cultural determinants.13 In other words, can the irreversible loss of the ethnic (biological and cultural) variety “per se”, mostly due to progressive and massive urbanization and humanization of the territory, negatively affect our health? We would like to comment on this, drawing some insight from Claude Levy Strauss's anthropological–cultural view starting from some of his basic concepts. Levy Strauss assumed that ethnic groups tended to distinguish each other simply because men, at the beginning, were few and aggregated in small groups: they therefore differentiated each other culturally (but also genetically—possibly through the occurrence of specific polymorphisms—by an environmental adaptation to improve individual, and group, health and survival). He calls that by the end of the XIX century more than 3500 different human societies were living all over the world: now most of them are definitely extinguished (with the consequent loss of their genetic and environmental identity and variety…and contribution to health!). Ethnic differences, Levy Strauss recalls, are creative and produce progress and evolution: thus health as natural consequence of the improved adaptation to the different environments.14

Obesity epidemics: secular trend or globalization consequence? Beyond the interaction between genetic and environmental factors

The WHO has declared overweight and obesity as one of the top 10 risk conditions in the world and one of the top 5 in industrialized countries.1 Studies on twins, adopted children, family aggregation and ethnic groups confirm the contribution of genes to the development of obesity.2–4 Obesity-predisposing genes encode the molecular components of the physiological systems regulating energy balance, i.e. energy intake and expenditure, and consequently body composition (including fat stores).5 Studies of ethnic groups and in developing countries support the thrifty genotype hypothesis whereby genes, selected through the million-year-long era of hunter–gatherers to afford a specific environmental pattern (including several hours of physical activity per day, continuously alternating of periods of feast with famine, etc.), are nowadays believed to predispose to obesity and diabetes.6 Actually this purported predisposing genetic pattern, developed to save energy, has produced an increasing prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in the agricultural (last 8–10,000 years) or recent industrialized (last 200 years) societies. The obesity epidemics actually exploded, as clearly appears in the US society, particularly in developing ages and in non caucasian populations, from the “80s onward, in less than one generation and not during the whole last century!”7,8 This is clearly confirmed by the massive epidemics of obesity and diabetes in aboriginal societies, very recently faced with westernized life styles.6 New, aggressive environmental and cultural factors have certainly played a role. As a matter of fact, food industry is currently able to manipulate the so called “food pyramid” by encouraging the consumption of low fat foods however enriched in simple sugars able to produce insulin-resistance and elevated post-prandial metabolic efficiency just as the harshly “banned” saturated fats do.9,10 This has led a tremendous confusion among the “consumers” and unspecialized physicians who have become “attracted” by irrational alternatives.11,12 Extreme but unrecognized sedentarism, in everyday work and leisure activities, and in the time spent to reach the working place, as well as the increase in elderly population have also reached their historical peak and do not tend to plateau. The whole process appears to be irreversible and spread all over the world! Nevertheless, overweight and obesity epidemics seem concomitant with another aspect of the very recent globalization process, the worldwide homogenization of the genetic and environmental, as well as socio-economic and cultural determinants.13 In other words, can the irreversible loss of the ethnic (biological and cultural) variety “per se”, mostly due to progressive and massive urbanization and humanization of the territory, negatively affect our health? We would like to comment on this, drawing some insight from Claude Levy Strauss's anthropological–cultural view starting from some of his basic concepts. Levy Strauss assumed that ethnic groups tended to distinguish each other simply because men, at the beginning, were few and aggregated in small groups: they therefore differentiated each other culturally (but also genetically—possibly through the occurrence of specific polymorphisms—by an environmental adaptation to improve individual, and group, health and survival). He calls that by the end of the XIX century more than 3500 different human societies were living all over the world: now most of them are definitely extinguished (with the consequent loss of their genetic and environmental identity and variety…and contribution to health!). Ethnic differences, Levy Strauss recalls, are creative and produce progress and evolution: thus health as natural consequence of the improved adaptation to the different environments.14

Getting the work done: a qualitative study of individuals with multiple sclerosis

The Problem : Work can be defined as an activity performed to accomplish something in the presence of obstacles that may make accomplishing the goal difficult. For individuals with MS, work is not only limited by physical impairments but also by factors such as fatigue and cognitive changes Purpose : The aim of this study is to examine the experiences of individuals with mild to moderate MS as they carry out everyday work activities both inside and outside the home. Method : Eleven women and three men were recruited from the community to participate in a series of semi-structured interviews. Using qualitative research methodology that examined the experiences of the participants, two major themes and seven subthemes emerged. Results : The first theme, Defining the work, included Priorities : seeing what's important; Plans : learning about resources and requirements; and Perspectives : fixing it yourself. The second theme, Changing how things get done, includes Precipitating factors; Awareness; Constructing the strategies; and Evaluating the strategies. Conclusions : Individuals with MS develop strategies and utilize resources in order to get the work done. Comparisons are made between existing intervention theories or programmes and the experiences described by participants in this study.

Workplace Pedagogic Practices: Co–participation and Learning

This paper advances tentative bases for understanding workplace pedagogic practices. It draws on a series of studies examining learning through everyday work activities and guided learning in the workplace. These studies identified the contributions and limitations of these learning experiences. However, whether referring to the activities and interactions arising through work or intentional guided learning, the quality and likely contributions of these learning experiences are underpinned by workplace participatory practices. These practices comprise the reciprocal process of how workplaces afford participation and how individuals elect to engage with the work practice, termed co–participation. Workplace experiences are not informal. They are a product of the historical–cultural practices and situational factors that constitute the particular work practice, which in turn distributes opportunities for participation to individuals or cohorts of individuals. That is, they shape the conduct of work and learning through these practices. However, how individuals construe what is afforded by the workplace shapes how they elect to engage in that practice and learn. There is no separation between engaging in conscious thought – such as when participating in socially derived activities and interactions – and learning. Learning is conceptualised as an inter–psychological process of participation in social practices such as workplaces. It is not reserved for activities and interactions intentionally organised for learning (e.g. those in educational institutions). Nevertheless, particular kinds of activities are likely to have particular learning consequences, regardless of whether they occur in the workplace or in educational institutions. The significance of co–participation is discussed in terms of the affordance of the workplace and individuals’ construction of that affordance and subsequent engagement. Co–participation is proposed as a platform to build an understanding of workplace pedagogic practices. This includes understanding the likely contributions of learning through everyday work activities and the use of intentional workplace learning strategies, such as guided workplace learning (e.g. modelling, coaching, questioning, etc.). Instances of co–participatory practices are illustrated and discussed. Following this, a tentative scheme, founded in socio–historical activity theory, is advanced as a means for describing the requirements for work and bases for participation. The scheme comprises two dimensions: activities and interdependencies.

Guided learning at work

Reports and discusses the findings of an investigation that examined the efficacy of guided learning in the workplace. The investigation comprised the trialing of guided learning strategies and an analysis of the learning occurring in five workplaces over a period of six months. The guided learning strategies selected for investigation were questioning dialogues, the use of diagrams and analogies within an approach to workplace learning emphasising modelling and coaching. Throughout the investigation, critical incident interviews were conducted to identify the contributions to learning that had occurred during these periods, including those provided by the guided learning. As anticipated, it was found that participation in everyday work activities (the learning curriculum) was most valued and reported as making effective contributions to learning in the workplace. However, there was also correlation between reports of the frequency of guided learning interactions and their efficacy in resolving novel workplace tasks, and therefore learning. It is postulated that some of these learning outcomes could not have been secured by everyday participation in the workplace alone. Further, factors associated with the readiness of enterprise and those within it were identified as influencing the likely effectiveness of guided learning at work.

Metabolic assessments during extra-vehicular activity

Extra-vehicular activity (EVA) has a significant role during extended space flights. It demonstrates that humans can survive and perform useful work outside the Orbital Space Stations (OSS) while wearing protective space suits (SS). When the International Space Station ‘Alpha’(ISSA) is fully operational, EVA assembly, installation, maintenance and repair operations will become an everyday repetitive work activity in space. It needs new ergonomic evaluation of the work/rest schedule for an increasing of the labor amount per EVA hour. The metabolism assessment is a helpful method to control the productivity of the EVA astronaut and to optimize the work/rest regime. Three following methods were used in Russia to estimate real-time metabolic rates during EVA: 1. 1. Oxygen consumption, computed from the pressure drop in a high pressure bottle per unit time (with actual thermodynamic oxygen properties under high pressure and oxygen leakage taken into account). 2. 2. Carbon dioxide production, computed from CO 2 concentration at the contaminant control cartridge and gas flow rate in the life support subsystem closed loop (nominal mode) or gas leakage in the SS open loop (emergency mode). 3. 3. Heat removal, computed from the difference between the temperatures of coolant water or gas and its flow rate in a unit of time (with assumed humidity and wet oxygen state taken into account). Comparison of heat removal values with metabolic rates enables us to determine the thermal balance during an operative medical control of EVA at “Salyut-6”, “Salyut-7” and “Mir” OSS. Complex analysis of metabolism, body temperature and heat rate supports a differential diagnosis between emotional and thermal components of stress during EVA. It gives a prognosis of human homeostasis during EVA. Available information has been acquired into an EVA data base which is an effective tool for ergonomical optimization.

Social science and system design: interdisciplinary collaborations

Contributions from the behavioral sciences to the design of computer systems have come primarily from psychology, and have focused on individual cognition. In this symposium, we consider the applicability to system design of approaches that focus on social interaction. The participants comprise pairs of researchers engaged in projects that aim to bring together systematic studies of naturally occurring human activities with the design of computer-based technology. Each of the projects emphasizes the importance of the social organization of communities, everyday communication and practice. The symposium participants — anthropologists, linguists and computer scientists — bring interdisciplinary perspectives to bear on the problem of how to design tools that incorporate the right mix of support for current work practices, solutions to recognized problems, and innovations in the way that work gets done. The aim of the symposium is to explore the possibilities for a productive relationship between research on socially organized human activities and system design. In this forum we will examine the problems that such interdisciplinary efforts face and the payoffs that they produce. Drawing on experience with their respective research projects, the participants will address the following questions concerning the development of a design process grounded in empirical studies: what is the relevance of activity studies to the design of new technology? What people do in everyday work settings is an obvious subject matter for social science, but just what is the relationship between that subject matter and system design? What part should an understanding of what people do now, with existing technological resources, play in the design of new technologies? How has new technology changed the nature of everyday work activities? The technological resources available in the domain of intellectual work, for example, are continually changing. Given this moving technological base, new forms of interaction between people emerge. What are the implications of those new forms, made possible by system design, for social science research? What social theory and methods do you draw on in your studies of work practice? What are the difficult theoretical or methodological problems, and what are the consequences of looking at everyday activities with the aim of designing new technology? What is the motivation behind your system design effort? That is, what problem in the domain of interest is your design intended to address? How has your design approach been affected by your empirical research? How has working with your collaborator changed your view of the problem domain? What has been most difficult about your collaboration and what has been most valuable? How have you negotiated differences in technical background, methods, conceptualization of the problem domain? To ground the discussion, participants will offer examples from their ongoing research projects. Brief descriptions of those projects are included here, but the symposium is intended as a lively debate of the questions posed, not as a presentation of findings. We hope through our discussion and through the participation of the symposium audience to shed light on the issues, while encouraging the development of new collaborations between social and computer scientists.

Social science and system design: interdisciplinary collaborations

Contributions from the behavioral sciences to the design of computer systems have come primarily from psychology, and have focused on individual cognition. In this symposium, we consider the applicability to system design of approaches that focus on social interaction. The participants comprise pairs of researchers engaged in projects that aim to bring together systematic studies of naturally occurring human activities with the design of computer-based technology. Each of the projects emphasizes the importance of the social organization of communities, everyday communication and practice. The symposium participants — anthropologists, linguists and computer scientists — bring interdisciplinary perspectives to bear on the problem of how to design tools that incorporate the right mix of support for current work practices, solutions to recognized problems, and innovations in the way that work gets done. The aim of the symposium is to explore the possibilities for a productive relationship between research on socially organized human activities and system design. In this forum we will examine the problems that such interdisciplinary efforts face and the payoffs that they produce. Drawing on experience with their respective research projects, the participants will address the following questions concerning the development of a design process grounded in empirical studies: what is the relevance of activity studies to the design of new technology? What people do in everyday work settings is an obvious subject matter for social science, but just what is the relationship between that subject matter and system design? What part should an understanding of what people do now, with existing technological resources, play in the design of new technologies? How has new technology changed the nature of everyday work activities? The technological resources available in the domain of intellectual work, for example, are continually changing. Given this moving technological base, new forms of interaction between people emerge. What are the implications of those new forms, made possible by system design, for social science research? What social theory and methods do you draw on in your studies of work practice? What are the difficult theoretical or methodological problems, and what are the consequences of looking at everyday activities with the aim of designing new technology? What is the motivation behind your system design effort? That is, what problem in the domain of interest is your design intended to address? How has your design approach been affected by your empirical research? How has working with your collaborator changed your view of the problem domain? What has been most difficult about your collaboration and what has been most valuable? How have you negotiated differences in technical background, methods, conceptualization of the problem domain? To ground the discussion, participants will offer examples from their ongoing research projects. Brief descriptions of those projects are included here, but the symposium is intended as a lively debate of the questions posed, not as a presentation of findings. We hope through our discussion and through the participation of the symposium audience to shed light on the issues, while encouraging the development of new collaborations between social and computer scientists.