Evergreen Broadleaf Trees Research Articles

Phytochemicals and biological studies of plants from the genus Balanophora

This review focus on the phytochemical progress and biological studies of plants from the genus Balanophora (Balanophoraceae) over the past few decades, in which most plants growth in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Oceania, and nearly 20 species ranged in southwest China. These dioeciously parasitic plants are normally growing on the roots of the evergreen broadleaf trees, especially in the family of Leguminosae, Ericaceae, Urticaceae, and Fagaceae. The plants are mainly used for clearing away heat and toxic, neutralizing the effect of alcoholic drinks, and as a tonic for the treatment of hemorrhoids, stomachache and hemoptysis. And it has been used widely throughtout local area by Chinese people.Cinnamic acid derivative tannins, possessing a phenylacrylic acid derivative (e. g. caffeoyl, coumaroyl, feruloyl or cinnamoyl), which connected to the C(1) position of a glucosyl unit by O-glycosidic bond, are the characteristic components in genus Balanophora. In addition, several galloyl, caffeoyl and hexahydroxydiphenoyl esters of dihydrochalcone glucosides are found in B. tobiracola, B. harlandii, and B. papuana. Other compounds like phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, terpenoids and sterols are also existed. And their biological activities, such as radical scavenging activities, HIV inhibiting effects, and hypoglycemic effects are highlighted in the review.

Midday stomatal conductance is more related to stem rather than leaf water status in subtropical deciduous and evergreen broadleaf trees

Midday depressions in stomatal conductance (g(s) ) and photosynthesis are common in plants. The aim of this study was to understand the hydraulic determinants of midday g(s) , the coordination between leaf and stem hydraulics and whether regulation of midday g(s) differed between deciduous and evergreen broadleaf tree species in a subtropical cloud forest of Southwest (SW) China. We investigated leaf and stem hydraulics, midday leaf and stem water potentials, as well as midday g(s) of co-occurring deciduous and evergreen tree species. Midday g(s) was correlated positively with midday stem water potential across both groups of species, but not with midday leaf water potential. Species with higher stem hydraulic conductivity and greater daily reliance on stem hydraulic capacitance were able to maintain higher stem water potential and higher g(s) at midday. Deciduous species exhibited significantly higher stem hydraulic conductivity, greater reliance on stem capacitance, higher stem water potential and g(s) at midday than evergreen species. Our results suggest that midday g(s) is more associated with midday stem than with leaf water status, and that the functional significance of stomatal regulation in these broadleaf tree species is probably for preventing stem xylem dysfunction.

Reconciling leaf physiological traits and canopy flux data: Use of the TRY and FLUXNET databases in the Community Land Model version 4

The Community Land Model version 4 overestimates gross primary production (GPP) compared with estimates from FLUXNET eddy covariance towers. The revised model of Bonan et al. (2011) is consistent with FLUXNET, but values for the leaf‐level photosynthetic parameterVcmaxthat yield realistic GPP at the canopy‐scale are lower than observed in the global synthesis of Kattge et al. (2009), except for tropical broadleaf evergreen trees. We investigate this discrepancy betweenVcmaxand canopy fluxes. A multilayer model with explicit calculation of light absorption and photosynthesis for sunlit and shaded leaves at depths in the canopy gives insight to the scale mismatch between leaf and canopy. We evaluate the model with light‐response curves at individual FLUXNET towers and with empirically upscaled annual GPP. Biases in the multilayer canopy with observedVcmaxare similar, or improved, compared with the standard two‐leaf canopy and its lowVcmax, though the Amazon is an exception. The difference relates to light absorption by shaded leaves in the two‐leaf canopy, and resulting higher photosynthesis when the canopy scaling parameterKn is low, but observationally constrained. Larger Kndecreases shaded leaf photosynthesis and reduces the difference between the two‐leaf and multilayer canopies. The low modelVcmaxis diagnosed from nitrogen reduction of GPP in simulations with carbon‐nitrogen biogeochemistry. Our results show that the imposed nitrogen reduction compensates for deficiency in the two‐leaf canopy that produces high GPP. Leaf trait databases (Vcmax), within‐canopy profiles of photosynthetic capacity (Kn), tower fluxes, and empirically upscaled fields provide important complementary information for model evaluation.

Wind tunnel study on aerodynamic characteristics of shrubby specimens of three tree species

With the popularization of green roofing systems, their wind resistant performance is becoming more and more important especially in typhoon areas. A prerequisite study was carried out to determine the aerodynamic characteristics of suitable trees to provide basic scientific data. Shrubby specimens of three tree species appropriate for intensive green roofs with different aerodynamic forms were tested through a boundary layer wind tunnel experiment, including one deciduous tree, one coniferous tree and one broadleaf evergreen tree. Drags and overturning moments under different wind speeds were measured; wind-speed-specific frontal areas and tip displacements were recorded. After initial tests, trees were pruned to investigate the effect of crown porosity, and the effects of view angle and turbulence intensity were also considered. The results showed that even considering frontal area reduction due to increasing wind speeds, drag coefficients decreased with increase in wind speed for deciduous and coniferous trees. Drag coefficient characteristics for different trees agreed well with those obtained from previous researches. The effect of crown porosity varied among tree species, but view angle and turbulence intensity did not significantly affect it.

Community and Population Dynamics of an Evergreen Conifer-Broadleaf Forest in Southern Taiwan: Recent Trends (1999~2009)

Community and population dynamics in a 1-ha permanent plot of an evergreen forest of conifer and broadleaf trees, dominated by Pseudotsuga wilsoniana and Castanopsis carlesii, in southern Taiwan were studied. All live stems with a diameter at breast height of ≥ 1 cm in this area were identified by species, tagged, and measured, first in 1999 and then again in 2009. While no changes in the floristic composition occurred between 1999 and 2009, some slight variations were evident in Shannon's diversity index. Based on a logarithmic model, the mortality, recruitment, loss, and gain rates in basal area during this period were respectively calculated to be 1.7, 0.6, -0.5, and 0.02% yr^(-1). The stem density and especially the basal area (5.06 m^2 ha^(-1)) of P. wilsoniana, the most important conifer, decreased. Although the density of all dominant broadleaf trees slightly declined, 8 gained in basal area. Recent trends suggest that P. wilsoniana trees are now at a competitive disadvantage relative to evergreen broadleaf trees in the permanent plot, but a powerful typhoon on September 2, 2003, had a major impact on the community and population dynamics of this evergreen forest of conifer and broadleaf trees.

Effects of ozone exposure on sub-tropical evergreen Cinnamomum camphora seedlings grown in different nitrogen loads

The present study aims in investigating the individual and combined effects of ozone (O3) exposure and nitrogen (N) load on the growth and photosynthetic characters of Cinnamomum camphora seedlings, a dominant evergreen broadleaf tree species in sub-tropical regions. The seedlings were supplied with N as NH4NO3 solution at 0, 30 and 60 kg ha−1 year−1 (simplified as N0, N30, N60, respectively) and were exposed to ambient O3 concentration (AA) or elevated [O3] (E-O3, AA +60 ppb) for one growth season. E-O3 induced significant negative effects on foliar photosynthesis, including lower photosynthetic rate, reduced carboxylation efficiency, quantum yield of PSII and photosynthetic pigment contents, despite no effect on growth. In contrast, N load acted as fertilization effects. Medium N (N30) increased photosynthetic pigments and stem-base diameter growth relative to N0, whereas high N load (N60) significantly enhanced the growth, photosynthetic pigments, and dark and light action of photosynthesis of C. camphora seedlings. No significant interactive effects of O3 and N load on the growth, net photosynthetic rate and pigment contents of the seedlings were found, suggesting that N supply to the soil at ≤60 kg ha−1 year−1 does not significantly change the sensitivity of C. camphora to ozone.

Inhibition effects of the classical pathway complement of isolated compounds from Quercus glauca

Species of the Quercus species is an evergreen broadleaf tree found not only in Korea but also in China, Taiwan, and Japan. Quercus species is the most commonly occurring plant among the 50 native species of the family Fagaceae in Korea, China, and Taiwan. Quercus species have been used for diarrhea, dysentery, dermatitis, and hemorrhagia in Korean folk medicine. The present study evaluated the anticomplement effect of constituents from Quercus species (Fagaceae) in classical pathway complement system. We have evaluated leaves of five species of the Quercus genus with regard to its anticomplement activity and have identified its active principles following activity-guided isolation. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the 80% methanol extracts of the stem barks of Quercus glauca Thunberg has led to the isolation of galloyl derivatives, displaying high anticomplement activity. Four galloyl derivatives isolated from the leaves of Q. glauca, namely 6'-O-galloyl salidroside (1), methyl gallate (2), 1,2,3,6-tetragalloylglucose (3), and 1,2,6-trigalloylglucose (4). 1, 2, 3 and 4 showed inhibitory activity against complement system with 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)) values of 224 μM, 362.4 μM, 32.3 μM, and 138.3 μM. Among the compounds tested, 3 showed the most potent anticomplement activity (IC(50), 32.3 μM). This is the first report of the isolation and anticomplement activity from Q. glauca.

Simple statistical approach for computing land cover types and potential natural vegetation

The main objective of this study was to show the potential of a simple and computationally inexpensive statistical method for the computation of land cover types (LCTs) and potential natural vegetation (PNV), which can be easily adapted to any LCT scheme used by climate models. We propose a diagnostic model (Vegetation Reconstruction by Diagnostic Equilibrium, VERDE), which is based on the cluster analysis of high-resolution datasets of observed LCT distribution and of climate variables. We discuss the reliability of this statistical approach and show that VERDE can be applied for reconstructing PNV distribution in areas such as Europe, India, and China where original vegetation has been replaced by crops and urban areas. According to VERDE, the dominant PNV consists of broadleaf deciduous trees in Central Europe, mixed savanna and grassland in Eastern Europe at mid-latitudes, and evergreen needle trees in Russia. Large areas of India are covered by savanna, and of China by grassland, mixed forest, and evergreen broadleaf trees. VERDE was applied to 5 climate model scenarios (produced by HadCM3, GFDL-CM2.0, IPSL-CM4, CSIRO-MK3, and CNRMCM3) to identify changes in potential vegetation at a global scale that would be induced by the projected climate change at the end of the 21st century. In the Northern Hemisphere, our results showed an increase in barren soils (deserts) in the areas from the tropics to the mid-latitudes, a northward shift of various types of forest, and a reduction in snowor ice-covered land and in areas occupied by shrubs and bushes (tundra) at high latitudes. Changes were smaller in the Southern Hemisphere and suggest increases in savanna in South America and shrublands in Australia.

Isolation and Characterization of 13 Microsatellite Loci from Korean Quercus acuta (Fagaceae)

Quercus acuta is an evergreen broadleaf tree that grows in the warm-temperate regions of Korea and Japan. Its habitats and populations are being destroyed, and a new northernmost limit of distribution has now been reported. To further our scientific understanding of its conservation and phylogeography, we isolated and characterized 13 microsatellite loci. An analysis of diversity was conducted among 35 individuals on Hong-do Island of Jeollanam-do, South Korea. Variability of the markers was also tested for 11 individuals from Jeju-do. At the population level, alleles numbered 2 to 12 and the observed and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.0909 to 0.9143 and from 0.0909 to 0.9364, respectively. Those 13 loci were also tested for cross-species amplification in three other evergreen Quercus species within the same subgenus Cyclobalanopsis. In all, 6 of 13 loci could be amplified for all three species. The microsatellite markers described here provide a powerful genetics tool for population, conservation, systematics, and phylogeographic studies, not only for Q. acuta but also for other evergreen Quercus species.

Pre-impact forest composition and ongoing tree mortality associated with sudden oak death in the Big Sur region; California

Mixed-evergreen forests of central coastal California are being severely impacted by the recently introduced plant pathogen, Phytophthora ramorum. We collected forest plot data using a multi-scale sampling design to characterize pre-infestation forest composition and ongoing tree mortality along environmental and time-since-fire gradients. Vegetation pattern was described using trend surface analysis, spatial autocorrelation analysis and redundancy analysis. Species-environment associations were modeled using non-parametric multiplicative regression (NPMR). Tanoak ( Lithocarpus densiflorus) mortality was analyzed with respect to environmental and biotic factors using trend surface analysis and multivariate regression. Mixed-evergreen forest occurs throughout the Big Sur region but is most widespread in the north, on north facing slopes, at mid-elevations near the coast. Relative basal area of the dominant tree species changes fairly predictably from north to south and from coast to interior in relation to mapped patterns of precipitation, temperature factors and soil characteristics. Most dominant tree species sprout vigorously after fire. The forests experience a mixed-fire regime in this region ranging from low severity understory burns to high severity crown fires, with the latter increasing above the marine inversion layer and at more interior locations. Ceanothus spp. can dominate mixed-evergreen sites for several decades after severe fires. All of the dominant broadleaf evergreen tree species are hosts of P. ramorum, although not all will die from infection. Tanoak mortality decreases from northwest to southeast and is significantly correlated with climate, especially growing degree days and mean annual precipitation, and with basal area of the foliar host bay laurel ( Umbellularia californica) in a 0.5–1 ha neighborhood. Adaptive management of mixed-evergreen forest to mitigate P. ramorum impacts in the region will need to consider large local and regional variation in forest composition and the potentially strong interactions between climate, fire, forest composition and disease severity.

Whole-tree chambers for elevated atmospheric CO 2 experimentation and tree scale flux measurements in south-eastern Australia: The Hawkesbury Forest Experiment

Resolving ecophysiological processes in elevated atmospheric CO 2 ( C a) at scales larger than single leaves poses significant challenges. Here, we describe a field-based experimental system designed to grow trees up to 9 m tall in elevated C a with the capacity to control air temperature and simultaneously measure whole-tree gas exchange. In western Sydney, Australia, we established the Hawkesbury Forest Experiment (HFE) where we built whole-tree chambers (WTC) to measure whole-tree CO 2 and water fluxes of an evergreen broadleaf tree, Eucalyptus saligna. A single E. saligna tree was grown from seedling to small tree within each of 12 WTCs; six WTCs were maintained at ambient C a and six WTCs were maintained at elevated C a, targeted at ambient C a +240 μmol mol −1. All 12 WTCs were controlled to track ambient outside air temperature ( T air) and air water vapour deficit ( D air). During the experimental period, T air, D air and C a in the WTCs were within 0.5 °C, 0.3 kPa, and 15 μmol mol −1 of the set-points for 90% of the time, respectively. Diurnal responses of whole-tree CO 2 and water vapour fluxes are analysed, demonstrating the ability of the tree chamber system to measure rapid environmental responses of these fluxes of entire trees. The light response of CO 2 uptake for entire trees showed a clear diurnal hysteresis, attributed to stomatal closure at high D air. Tree scale CO 2 fluxes confirm the hypothesised deleterious effect of chilling night-time temperatures on whole-tree carbon gain in this subtropical Eucalyptus. The whole-tree chamber flux data add an invaluable scale to measurements in both ambient and elevated C a and allow us to elucidate the mechanisms driving tree productivity responses to elevated C a in interaction with water availability and temperature.

Spatial patterns of a subtropical, coastal urban forest: Implications for land tenure, hurricanes, and invasives

Spatial patterns of tree structure and composition were studied to assess the effects of land tenure, management regimes, and the environment on a coastal, subtropical urban forest. A total of 229 plots in remnant natural areas, private residential, public non-residential, and private non-residential land tenures were analyzed in a 1273 km 2 study area encompassing the urbanized portion of Miami-Dade County, USA. Statistical mixed models of structure, composition, location, and land tenure data were used to analyze spatial patterns across the study area. A total of 1200 trees were measured of which 593 trees (49%) were located in residential areas, 67 (6%) in public non-residential areas, 135 trees (11%) in private non-residential areas, and 405 (34%) in remnant, natural areas. A total of 107 different tree species belonging to 90 genera were sampled. Basal area in residential land tenures increased towards the coast while private residential land tenures and natural areas had higher species diversity than non-residential areas. Tree height, crown light exposure, and crown area might indicate the effects of past hurricane impacts on urban forest structure. Land tenure, soil types, and urban morphology influenced composition and structure. Broadleaf evergreen trees are the most common growth form, followed by broadleaf deciduous, palms, and conifers. Exotic tree species originated mainly from Asia and 15% of all trees measured were considered exotic-highly invasive species. We discuss the use of these results as an ecological basis for management and resilience towards hurricane damage and identifying occurrence of invasive, exotic trees.

Characterization of organic compounds and molecular tracers from biomass burning smoke in South China I: Broad-leaf trees and shrubs

Biomass burning smoke constituents are worthy of concern due to its influence on climate and human health. The organic constituents and distributions of molecular tracers emitted from burning smoke of six natural vegetations including monsoon evergreen broad-leaf trees and shrubs in South China were determined in this study. The gas and particle samples were collected and analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The major organic components in these smoke samples are methoxyphenols from lignin and saccharides from cellulose. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are also present as minor constituents. Furanose, pyranose and their dianhydrides are the first reported in the biomass burning smoke. Some unique biomarkers were detected in this study which may be useful as specific tracers. The corresponding tracer/OC ratios are used as indicators for the two types of biomass burning. U/ R (1.06–1.72) in the smoke samples may be used as parameters to distinguish broad-leaf trees and shrubs from fossil fuel. Other useful diagnostic ratios such as methylphenanthrene to phenanthrene (MPhe/Phe), phenanthrene to phenanthrene plus anthracene (Phe/(Phe + Ant)) and fluoranthene to fluoranthene plus pyrene (Flu/(Flu + Pyr)) and octadecenoic acid/OC are also identified in this study. These results are useful in efforts to better understand the emission characterization of biomass burning in South China and the contribution of regional biomass burning to global climate change.

Some challenges in global land cover mapping: An assessment of agreement and accuracy in existing 1 km datasets

Many investigators need and use global land cover maps for a wide variety of purposes. Ironically, after many years of very limited availability, there are now multiple global land cover maps and it is not readily apparent (1) which is most useful for particular applications or (2) how to combine the different maps to provide an improved dataset. The existing global land cover maps at 1 km spatial resolution have arisen from different initiatives and are based on different remote sensing data and employed different methodologies. Perhaps more significantly, they have different legends. As a result, comparison of the different land cover maps is difficult and information about their relative utility is limited. In an attempt to compare the datasets and assess their strengths and weaknesses we harmonized the thematic legends of four available coarse-resolution global land cover maps (IGBP DISCover, UMD, MODIS 1-km, and GLC2000) using the LCCS-based land cover legend translation protocols. Analysis of the agreement among the global land cover maps and existing validation information highlights general patterns of agreement, inconsistencies and uncertainties. The thematic classes of Evergreen broadleaf trees, Snow and Ice, and Barren show high producer and user accuracy and good agreement among the datasets, while classes of mixed tree types show high commission errors. Overall, the results show a limited ability of the four global products to discriminate mixed classes characterized by a mosaic of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation. There is a strong relationship between class accuracy, spatial agreement among the datasets, and the heterogeneity of landscapes. Suggestions for future mapping projects include careful definition of mixed unit classes, and improvement in mapping heterogeneous landscapes.

Decrease in the capacity for RuBP carboxylation and regeneration with the progression of cold-induced photoinhibition during winter in evergreen broadleaf tree species in a temperate forest.

We measured the photosynthetic capacity (RuBP carboxylation and electron transport capacity at 25°C) and the maximum photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) from autumn to spring in saplings of two evergreen broadleaf tree species and examined the negative effects of photoinhibition on the photosynthetic capacity. Saplings were grown in pots under three simulated natural light environments typical of temperate forests: an open site, deciduous understorey and evergreen understorey. During winter, the photosynthetic capacity and Fv/Fm synchronously decreased in leaves in the sun, but not those in the shade. We found large differences in Fv/Fm and photosynthetic capacity, along with a positive correlation between Fv/Fm and the photosynthetic capacity among leaves in different light environments. In photoinhibited leaves that were transferred to the shade in mid-winter, photosynthetic capacity increased synchronously with the increment of Fv/Fm. The decrease in photosynthetic capacity in photoinhibited leaves and the synchronous recovery of photosynthetic capacity with photoinhibition supported the hypothesis that photoinhibition depressed the photosynthetic capacity during winter. We showed that difference in the degree of photoinhibition was responsible for the different winter photosynthetic capacity among leaves exposed to different light environments.

Seasonal variation in photosystem II efficiency and photochemical reflectance index of evergreen trees and perennial grasses growing at low and high elevations in subtropical Taiwan

Three pines species, three evergreen broadleaf trees, one C(3) and two C(4) perennial grasses of subtropical Taiwan were studied to elucidate the correlation between photosystem II (PSII) efficiency and photochemical reflectance index (PRI = (R(531) - R(570))/(R(531) + R(570))). Measurements were made at two sites differing in altitude (800 and 2600 m) over several growing seasons. At high elevation, potential PSII efficiency, measured by chlorophyll fluorescence (the ratio of variable to maximal fluorescence; F(v)/F(m)) at predawn, decreased with decreasing air temperature and varied greatly among species. At the lowest air temperature (-3 degrees C) studied, variation in F(v)/F(m) among species ranged from 0.33 to 0.72. In contrast, at low elevation where air temperature was moderate, seasonal variation in F(v)/F(m) was small in all of the study species. When species, elevation and season data were pooled, despite the high variation in F(v)/F(m) among species, a good correlation between F(v)/F(m) and PRI was observed. When compared at the same value of PRI, F(v)/F(m) of evergreen trees was higher than that of perennial grasses; however, when the minimum temperature on the measurement day was below 0 degrees C, F(v)/F(m) was underestimated relative to PRI. We conclude that PRI could be used as a remote indicator of photosynthetic function when air temperature is above 0 degrees C.

京都市街地における樹洞を有する樹木の特徴

Tree hollows are important nest and roost sites for various animals such as Ninox scutulata even in urban areas, but the number of such sites is very low. In this study, we recorded the characteristics of legacy trees with hollows in an urban area within Kyoto City (25 km2), Japan in 2002. We found 288 legacy trees with a trunk perimeter more than 300 cm and 94 trees with hollows. Legacy trees of Castanopsis sieboldii (an ever-green broad-leaf tree) and Aphananthe aspera (a deciduous broad-leaf tree) had a high rate of hollows. All six legacy trees of Cinnamomum camphora (an ever-green broad-leaf tree) with more than 1.5 m of DBH had hollows, but other trees of this species did not have hollows even when the trunk perimeter was more than 300 cm. We applied a logistic regression model to trunk perimeter and the probability of hollow-bearing in each species in an urban woods. We also predicted tree perimeter in relation to age from the annual relative growth rate in each species. A. aspera trees showed the highest incidence of tree hollows in relation to trunk perimeter, but these trees grow very slowly. Celtis sinensis trees grow rapidly, but they have a lower rate of tree hollows than A. aspera. Z. serrata trees grow at an intermediate speed and rarely have tree hollows. Cinnamomum camphora trees grow rapidly. Castanopsis sieboldii trees grow at an intermediate speed.

An Estimate of Full Density Curves for Branches on Standing Trees : A Case Study of the Evergreen Broadleaf Tree, Quercus acuta, in the Tokyo University Forest in Chiba, Japan

An Estimate of Full Density Curves for Branches on Standing Trees : A Case Study of the Evergreen Broadleaf Tree, Quercus acuta, in the Tokyo University Forest in Chiba, Japan

Effects of Amazonian deforestation on climate: a numerical experiment with a coupled biosphere-atmosphere model with soil hydrology

A coupled biosphere-atmosphere statistical-dynamical model (SDM) is used to study the climatic effects of Amazonian deforestation. A soil moisture model based on BATS has been incorporated into the SDM in order to study the biogeophysical feedback of change in surface characteristics to regional climate due to the deforestation. In the control experiment, the mean annual and mean seasonal climate is well simulated by the model when compared with NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data. In the deforestation experiment, the evergreen broadleaf trees in the Amazonian region are substituted by short grass. The effects of Amazonian deforestation on regional climate are analysed taking into account the model simulations for the land portion of the latitude belts comprising the tropical region. Amazonian deforestation results in regional climate changes such as a decrease in evaporation, precipitation, available surface net radiation and soil moisture content, and an increase in temperatures and sensible heat flux. The reduction in transpiration was responsible for the most part of the decrease in total evapotranspiration. The reduction in precipitation was larger than the decrease in evapotranspiration so that runoff was reduced. The simulation of the diurnal cycle of the surface temperature shows an increase in temperature during the day and a decrease at night, which is in agreement with observations, whereas earlier GCM experiments showed an increase both during the day and night. In general, the changes in temperature and energy fluxes are in good agreement with GCM experiments, showing that the SDM is able to simulate the characteristics of the tropical climate that are associated with the substitution of forest by pasture areas.

Fusicoccum arbuti sp. nov. causing cankers on Pacific madrone in western North America with notes on Fusicoccum dimidiatum, the correct name for Scytalidium dimidiatum and Nattrassia mangiferae

Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii) is a broadleaf evergreen tree native to western North America that has been in decline for the past 30 years. A fungus has been isolated and was verified as the cause of cankers on dying trees. It was determined to belong in the genus Fusicoccum, an asexual state of Botryosphaeria. This genus in both its sexual and asexual states commonly causes canker diseases of deciduous woody plants. Using morphological and molecular data the fungus causing cankers on Pacific madrone is characterized, described and illustrated as a new species of Fusicoccum, F. arbuti D.F. Farr & M. Elliott sp. nov. No sexual state is known for F. arbuti. Evidence from the literature, cultures and specimens suggests that F. arbuti, often mistakenly identified as Nattrassia mangiferae, has been causing madrone canker since at least 1968. Authentic isolates of Nattrassia mangiferae as the synanamorph Scytalidium dimidiatum were sequenced and determined to be different from Fusicoccum arbuti and to belong in Botryosphaeria/Fusicoccum. In addition to molecular sequence data, the morphology of the pycnidial and arthric conidial states of Nattrassia mangiferae/ Scytalidium dimidiatum resembles that of Fusicoccum. Therefore the correct name for Nattrassia mangiferae and its numerous synonyms (Dothiorella mangiferae, Torula dimidata, Scytilidium dimidiatum, Fusicoccum eucalypti, Hendersonula toruloidea, H. cypria, Exosporina fawcetii, H. agathidia, and S. lignicola) is Fusicoccum dimidiatum (Penz.) D.F. Farr, comb. nov.