Drought Events Research Articles

Global increase in the occurrence and impact of multiyear droughts

Persistent multiyear drought (MYD) events pose a growing threat to nature and humans in a changing climate. We identified and inventoried global MYDs by detecting spatiotemporally contiguous climatic anomalies, showing that MYDs have become drier, hotter, and led to increasingly diminished vegetation greenness. The global terrestrial land affected by MYDs has increased at a rate of 49,279 ± 14,771 square kilometers per year from 1980 to 2018. Temperate grasslands have exhibited the greatest declines in vegetation greenness during MYDs, whereas boreal and tropical forests have had comparably minor responses. With MYDs becoming more common, this global quantitative inventory of the occurrence, severity, trend, and impact of MYDs provides an important benchmark for facilitating more effective and collaborative preparedness toward mitigation of and adaptation to such extreme events.

Long-term hydrological drought monitoring and trend analysis in Blue Nile River basin.

This research aims to monitor the hydrological drought trends within the geographical confines of Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt in the Blue Nile River Basin. Historical drought circumstances in the basin were analyzed through the utilization of the stream flow drought index (SDI). The long-term historical drought trend was investigated via the application of the Mann - Kendall Sen (MK) test. Streamflow data were collected at the border (GERD) (Ethiopia) and Khartoum and Dongola (Sudan) spanning the period from 1900 to 2001. Four distinct temporal scales were examined, including monthly (SDI1), seasonal (SDI3), bi-annual (SDI6), and annual (SDI12) frequency. Notably, SDI1, SDI3, and SDI6 exhibited a higher frequency of drought occurrences, whereas SDI12 demonstrated lower frequencies, accompanied by the longest duration of drought in all gauged stations. For the preceding 102-year period, two extreme drought events were identified across all stations: 1912/1913 and 1913/1914 in the Border and Dongola stations, and 1912/1913 and 1986/1987 in the Khartoum station. Moreover, the SDI12 results revealed that severe drought events manifested three, six, and four times, in the Border, Khartoum, and Dongola stations, respectively. Furthermore, an investigation of historical extreme and severe drought patterns led to the conclusion that extreme hydrological drought does not pose an imminent threat to downstream nations, including Egypt and Sudan. However, the trend analysis revealed that an increasing drought trend was observed in the Autumn season across all stations, while a positive trend characteristic of a wet condition was observed in the remaining seasons. Annual trend analysis did not show any statistically significant findings. Nevertheless, the study highlighted the imperative role of soil and water conservation measures in upstream countries, such as the Ethiopian highlands, in mitigating the prolonged effects of meteorological drought which gradually propagates into severe hydrological drought. Consequently, downstream nations must engage in cooperative efforts with upstream countries to address this issue collectively, rather than bestowing sole responsibility on the latter.

Effects of Climate Change on Fort Patiko Historical Site in Northern Uganda

This study investigated the effect of climate change on Fort Patiko in Gulu District, in Northern Uganda from 1972 to 2023. Archaeological and historic sites are under threat of climate change, characterised by global warming, heavy rains and flooding, drought and extreme weather events. Fort Patiko may not be an exception. The study established that Fort Patiko's originality and physical appearance have been impacted by climate change. Due to rain and heat waves, the rock's colour and structures have changed over time. Wind, rain, and humidity agents of erosion are weakening the rock structures. There are fewer studies which have tried to explore the effect of climate change on Fort Patiko, therefore, this study will fill the gap. Qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed for this study to understand the diversity and intensity of the effect of climate change on the Fort Patiko historical site. The ethnohistorical research design was used to extract historical narratives and events pointing to the effects of climate change on Fort Patiko. Data was collected through, a review of documents and reports on climate change in the region; direct observation, and interviews with local community members to explore the nature and effects of climate change on Fort Patiko. A total of 55 participants were interviewed. Thematic analysis was used to identify key characteristics and effects of climate change on the Fort Patiko historical site

How Do Changes in Grassland Phenology and Its Responses to Extreme Climatic Events in Central Asia?

Extreme climate events have become more frequent under global warming, significantly affecting vegetation phenology and carbon cycles in Central Asia. However, the mediating effects of intensity of compound drought and heat events (CDHEs) and compound moisture and heat events (CMHEs) on grassland phenology and their trends in the relative contributions to grassland phenology over time have remained unclear. Based on the calculation results of grassland phenology and compound events (CEs), this study used trend analysis, partial least squares regression structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), and ridge regression analysis to investigate the mediating effect and the temporal trend in relative contribution of CEs to grassland phenology in Central Asia, and the magnitude of sensitivity of grassland phenology to CEs. This study revealed that the start of season (SOS) was advanced by 0.4 d·a−1, end of season (EOS) was delayed by 0.5 d·a−1, and length of season (LOS) extended by 0.8 d·a−1 in 1982–2022. The duration of the CDHEs (0−37 days) was greater than that of the CMHEs (0−9 days) in Central Asia. The direct effects of CDHEs and CMHEs on grassland phenology were generally negative, except for the direct positive effect of CDHEs on LOS. The indirect effects of temperature and precipitation on grassland phenology through CDHEs and CMHEs were greater than their direct effects on phenology. The relative contribution of CDHEs to grassland phenology was consistently greater than that of CMHEs, and both the relative contribution curves showed a significant upward trend. The sensitivity of grassland phenology to CDHEs was higher than its sensitivity to CMHEs at 0.79 (SOS), 1.18 (EOS), and 0.72 (LOS). Our results emphasize the mediating effects of CDHEs and CMHEs on grassland phenology. Under the influence of CDHEs and CMHEs, the LOS will further lengthen in the future.

Phosphorus Fertilization and Chemical Root Pruning: Effects on Root Traits During the Nursery Stage in Two Mediterranean Species from Central Chile

The role of a plant root system in resource acquisition is relevant to confront drought events caused by climate change. Accordingly, nursery practices like phosphorous (P) fertilization and root pruning have been shown to modify root architecture; however, their combined benefits require further investigation in Mediterranean species. We evaluated the effect of applied P concentrations (0, 15, 60, and 120 mg L−1 P) with or without chemical (copper) root pruning (WCu, WoCu, respectively) in Aristotelia chilensis and Quillaja saponaria on morpho-physiological and root architecture traits. Higher P concentration increased nutrient content in both species concurrent with higher growth. In A. chilensis, higher P concentrations only increased the length and volume of medium roots. In Q. saponaria, P additions increased root length and diameter and the length and volume of fine and medium roots. The root-to-shoot ratio declined with WCu in A. chilensis (23.1%) and Q. saponaria (15.7%). Unlike our hypothesis, fine root architecture remained unaffected with root pruning in A. chilensis, while fine root length and volume decreased with increasing P concentrations in Q. saponaria. Thus, P fertilization enhances root development more consistently than root pruning, highlighting the need for further testing under water deficit conditions to optimize nursery practices.

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Drought in the Huai River Basin (2012–2018): Analyzing Patterns Through Hydrological Simulation and Geospatial Methods

As climate change intensifies, extreme drought events have become more frequent, and investigating the mechanisms of watershed drought has become highly significant for basin water resource management. This study utilizes the WRF-Hydro model in conjunction with standardized drought indices, including the standardized precipitation index (SPI), standardized soil moisture index (SSMI), and Standardized Streamflow Index (SSFI), to comprehensively investigate the spatiotemporal characteristics of drought in the Huai River Basin, China, from 2012 to 2018. The simulation performance of the WRF-Hydro model was evaluated by comparing model outputs with reanalysis data at the regional scale and site observational data at the site scale, respectively. Our results demonstrate that the model showed a correlation coefficient of 0.74, a bias of −0.29, and a root mean square error of 2.66% when compared with reanalysis data in the 0–10 cm soil layer. Against the six observational sites, the model achieved a maximum correlation coefficient of 0.81, a minimum bias of −0.54, and a minimum root mean square error of 3.12%. The simulation results at both regional and site scales demonstrate that the model achieves high accuracy in simulating soil moisture in this basin. The analysis of SPI, SSMI, and SSFI from 2012 to 2018 shows that the summer months rarely experience drought, and droughts predominantly occurred in December, January, and February in the Huai River Basin. Moreover, we found that the drought characteristics in this basin have significant seasonal and interannual variability and spatial heterogeneity. On the one hand, the middle and southern parts of the basin experience more frequent and severe agricultural droughts compared to the northern regions. On the other hand, we identified a time–lag relationship among meteorological, agricultural, and hydrological droughts, uncovering interactions and propagation mechanisms across different drought types in this basin. Finally, we concluded that the WRF-Hydro model can provide highly accurate soil moisture simulation results and can be used to assess the spatiotemporal variations in regional drought events and the propagation mechanisms between different types of droughts.

Plant Adaptation and Soil Shear Strength: Unraveling the Drought Legacy in Amorpha fruticosa

Climate change has led to an increasing frequency of droughts, potentially undermining soil stability. In such a changing environment, the shallow reinforcement effect of plant roots often fails to meet expectations. This study aims to explore whether this is associated with the alteration of plant traits as a response to environmental change. Focusing on Amorpha fruticosa, a species known for its robust root system that plays a crucial role in soil consolidation and slope stabilization, thereby reducing soil and water erosion, we simulated a drought-rewetting event to assess the legacy effects of drought on the soil shear strength and the mechanical and hydrological traits associated with the reinforcement provided by A. fruticosa. The results show that the legacy effect of drought significantly diminishes the soil shear strength. Pretreated with drought, plant roots undergo morphological alterations such as deeper growth, yet the underground root biomass and diameter decline, thereby influencing mechanical reinforcement. Chemical composition analysis indicates that the plant’s adaptation to drought modifies the intrinsic properties of the roots, with varying impacts on different root types and overall reinforcement. Concurrently, the stomatal conductance and transpiration rate of leaves decrease, weakening the capacity to augment soil matric suction through transpiration and potentially reducing hydrological reinforcement. Although rewetting treatments aid in recovery, drought legacy effects persist and impact plant functional attributes. This study emphasizes that, beyond soil matric suction, plant adaptive mechanisms in response to environmental changes may also contribute significantly to reduced soil shear strength. Consequently, ecological restoration strategies should consider plant trait adaptations to drought, enhancing root systems for soil conservation and climate resilience.

Three-dimensional identification of drought events and copula-based multivariate meteorological drought risk probability assessment in the Huai River Basin, China

Three-dimensional identification of drought events and copula-based multivariate meteorological drought risk probability assessment in the Huai River Basin, China

Impacts of climate-induced drought on lake and reservoir biodiversity and ecosystem services: A review.

Intensifying extreme droughts are altering lentic ecosystems and disrupting services provisioning. Unfortunately, drought research often lacks a holistic and intersectoral consideration of drought impacts, which can limit relevance of the insights for adaptive management. This literature review evaluated the current state of lake and reservoir extreme drought research in relation to biodiversity and three ecosystem services. The study findings demonstrated that few articles linked or discussed drought implications with one or more ecosystem services, instead focusing primarily on biodiversity. Drought effects on biodiversity varied among species and taxonomic groups. In the limited literature that included ecosystem service provisioning, droughts had a general negative effect. Drinking water supply can decrease and become more costly. Decreasing water flow and volume can reduce hydropower generation. Degraded water quality can also impact recreation. Future intersectoral collaborations and research on intensifying droughts should support adaptive management efforts in mitigating drought impacts.

Trends and Spatiotemporal Patterns of the Meteorological Drought in the Ili River Valley from 1961 to 2023: An SPEI-Based Study

Drought presents significant challenges in arid regions, influencing local climate and environmental dynamics. While the large-scale climatic phenomena in Xinjiang, northwest China, are well-documented, the finer-scale climatic variability in subregions such as the Ili River Valley (IRV) remains insufficiently studied. This knowledge gap impedes effective regional planning and environmental management in this ecologically sensitive area. In this study, we analyze the spatiotemporal evolution of drought in the IRV from 1961 to 2023, using data from ten meteorological stations. The SPEI drought index, along with Sen’s trend analysis, the Mann–Kendall test, the cumulative departure method, and wavelet analysis, were employed to assess drought patterns. Results show a significant drying trend in the IRV, starting in 1995, with frequent drought events from 2018 onwards, and no notable transition year observed from wet to dry conditions. The overall drought rate was −0.09 per decade, indicating milder drought severity in the IRV compared to broader Xinjiang. Seasonally, the IRV experiences drier summers and wetter winters compared to regional averages, with negligible changes in autumn and milder drought conditions in spring. Abrupt changes in the drying seasons occurred later in the IRV than in Xinjiang, with delays of 21 years for summer, and over 17 and 35 years for spring and autumn, respectively, indicating a lagged response. Spatially, the western plains are more prone to aridification than the central and eastern mountainous regions. The study also reveals significant differences in drought cycles, which are longer than those in Xinjiang, with distinct wet–dry phases observed across multiple time scales and seasons, emphasizing the complexity of drought variability in the IRV. In conclusion, the valley exhibits unique drought characteristics, including milder intensity, pronounced seasonal variation, spatial heterogeneity, and notable resilience to climate change. These findings underscore the need for region-specific drought management strategies, as broader approaches may not be effective at the subregional scale.

Decoupling the Effects of Fire and Dry Season Drought on Seedling Establishment Success of Tree Functional Types in Humid Savannas

Background: In the seasonal tropics, fire generally occurs in the dry season. Consequently, the effects of fire and dry season drought on seedling establishment of different tree functional types are correlated. Therefore, factors that are more important for tree recruitment in forest-savanna ecotones are still poorly understood. Methods: We studied seedling establishment success of seven tropical tree species (of forest and forest-savanna transition origins) in a common garden experiment using combinations of dry season (irrigation vs no-irrigation) and fire (burning vs no-burning). Results: We found that burning caused a significant decline in survival of forest species, but not of forest-savanna transition species. The combination of burning without dry season irrigation (which typifies dry season fire) had the largest overall effect on survival, mass and height of plants. The separate effect of burning was larger than that of dry season drought. Seedling size at the onset of the dry season significantly predicted root starch content and, hence, dry season survival probability of forest-savanna transition species, but not of forest species. Dry season irrigation increased post-fire survival of forest-savanna transition species, but not of forest species, possibly linked to differences in resprout capacity and root starch reserves. Conclusion: Our work shows that fire and dry season drought produce a stronger negative effect together, than their separate effects on seedling establishment particularly of forest species. This provides a mechanistic explanation for the existence of forest-savanna transition species in fire-prone humid savannas. Implications for Conservation: The mosaic of forest, transitional and savanna vegetation within the forest-savanna ecotone reflects the influences of fire and dry season drought. Any changes in these elements will influence vegetation dynamics within the forest-savanna ecotone.

Gridded drought response assessment of winter wheat in Oklahoma using big data and AquaCrop-OS.

Winter wheat is the most dominant crop in Oklahoma and critically important to the economy of agricultural industry in this state and the region. However, weather anomalies such as droughts, which are frequent in Oklahoma, pose serious threats to winter wheat yield. This study was conducted to assess the effects of droughts on the simulated yield of dryland winter wheat (Ysd) in Oklahoma employing a gridded approach with the AquaCrop Open Source (AquaCrop-OS). Long-term (30-year) simulations showed that the average Ysd ranged from 0.9 to 7.1Mgha-1 across the 3281 grids of the Oklahoma winter wheat belt. At the climate division level, Ysd ranged from 2.9Mgha-1 in Panhandle to 5.5Mgha-1 in Central divisions. Fluctuation in Ysd generally agreed with the actual dryland yield measured at several research fields across the study area. However, the model tended to underestimate Ysd during certain drought events at some sites. The coefficient of variation (CV) for Ysd ranged from 0.1 to 1.6. Panhandle climate division had the largest CV, mainly due to inconsistency in growing season precipitation and temperature related stresses. In addition, grids with smaller total available water in the root zone, such as those with coarser textures near streams, had lower yields and larger CV. The strongest correlations between Ysd and drought indices (SPEI, Z-index, PDSI) existed in the months of March to May, when the crop is highly sensitive to water stress. Largest drought sensitivity of winter wheat, based on Ysd-drought index regression slopes, was estimated in West Central division for short to long-term droughts.

Ensemble habitat suitability model predicts Suaeda salsa distribution and resilience to extreme climate events.

Climate anomalies lead to an increased occurrence of extreme temperature and drought events in coastal wetlands, resulting in heightened survival pressure on salt marsh plants. It is imperative to anticipate the effects of these events on the habitat suitability and resilience of coastal salt marsh vegetation to inform restoration efforts and management strategies. Herein, an ensemble model was developed to evaluate the recovery of Suaeda Salsa in the two subsequent years following the anomalously high temperatures and decreased precipitation experienced during the summer of 2018, potentially leading to a decline in this species in the eastern coast of Liaohe Estuary wetland (Bohai Sea, China). Additionally, the resilience of the ecosystem was evaluated based on the evolution of density and morphology metrics of S. salsa. The findings suggest that the ensemble model demonstrates exceptional predictive performance in assessing habitat suitability, as evidenced by True Skill Statistic (TSS) values of 0.94±0.02 and 0.96±0.03 for the years 2019 and 2020, respectively, and Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUC) values of 0.96±0.03 in 2019 and 0.97±0.02 in 2020. Tidal elevation and soil salinity were identified as the primary predictors for the habitat suitability of S. salsa, while sand content emerged as the most influential factor driving its expansion. The core and suitable habitat areas of S. salsa experienced a significant increase from 9.61±1.16km2 in 2019 to 15.66±2.24km2 in 2020, representing a 62.96±8.44 % growth. A notable increase in density and above-ground biomass was noted, indicating a potential recovery of salt marsh vegetation from multi-stresses. However, a decline in below-ground biomass, from 61.9gm-2 in August 2018 to 39.8gm-2 in August 2020, suggests a reduction in the resilience of S. salsa to future disturbances. This decrease in below-ground reserves, which were crucial for the tolerance of S. Salsa, may impact the vegetation's ability to withstand future challenges. The results highlight the effectiveness of optimizing freshwater irrigation and implementing artificially constructed tidal channels as strategies for future restoration efforts. Besides, the evaluation method of habitat suitability and bio-metrics proposed herein is applicable to the restoration and protection for other estuarine halophytes.

Economic effects of drought on agriculture: Conceptual methods and stakeholders’ perceptions

Economic effects of drought on agriculture: Conceptual methods and stakeholders’ perceptions

Tomato fruit quality and nutrient dynamics under water deficit conditions: The influence of an organic fertilizer.

Drought adversely affects the growth and performance of plants. By contrast, the application of organic modifiers can improve plant growth by supplying nutrients and water. The influence of foliar application of organic fertilizer under water deficit conditions on growth traits, chemical composition, and fruit quality of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., var. Maya) were investigated in greenhouse conditions based on bi-plot and principal component analysis (PCA). Plants which were cultivated in soil under greenhouse conditions were subjected to four levels foliar spraying of Zargreen liquid organic fertilizer, ZLOF (0, 2.5, 5, and 7.5 L 1000-1, shown as Z0, Z2.5, Z5, and Z7.5, respectively), and three levels of soil water, SW (100, 75, and 50% of field capacity (FC), shown W100, W75, and W50, respectively). The results of biplot analysis using the different treatments representing 42.9% and 38.3%, 60.3% and 28.8%, and 63.1% and 22.4% of the variance attributed to the first two principal components (PCs) for the PC1 and PC2, under 100, 75, and 50% FC conditions, respectively. Water deficit induced a reduction of fruit dry, and fresh weights. Application of 2.5, 5, and 7.5 L 1000-1 of the organic fertilizer significantly increased fruit fresh weight by 16, 20, and 22% and fruit dry weight by 13, 20, and 20% as compared to that of control, respectively. Vitamin C content of fruit significantly increased by 16 and 33% when respectively 5 and 7.5 L 1000-1 of the organic fertilizer was foliar sprayed. Besides, fruit iron (Fe), sodium (Na (and potassium (K) concentrations increased with the application of the organic fertilizer at different levels of water deficit. Furthermore, the highest fruit zinc (Zn) concentration was obtained at the highest level of both applied organic fertilizer and water deficit. The best treatments were selected with increased PC1 and decreased PC2 for different water conditions. The W100Z7.5, W75Z7.5, and W50Z5 treatments with the higher PC1 and the lower PC2, also exhibited higher scores for fruit dry weight, and Na and K concentrations under W100; vitamin C, number of fruits, fruit fresh weight, and fruit Fe concentration under W75; citric acid, and fruit Fe, Zn, Na, K, and Cu concentrations under W50 treatment. The addition of the organic fertilizer was effective in enhancing the plant growth traits under water deficit conditions. Therefore, it can be concluded that organic fertilizer addition is an effective management strategy to mitigate the adverse effects of drought and improve the quantity and quality of tomato fruit.

Grazing on the Tibetan plateau currently exceeds the safe boundary of its ecosystem services.

Under the influence of climate warming, overgrazing may exacerbate ecosystem degradation. To determine the safe grazing boundaries and potential degradation areas in different regions. The study used the Generalize Linear Model (GLM) to assess the combined effects of drought and grazing on the ecosystem services of the Tibetan Plateau (TP), and identified safe grazing boundaries and overgrazing areas. The study indicated that, except in arid regions (25.58 Mu/km2), the average safe grazing boundary in other areas exceeded 50 Mu/km2. Under the influence of drought, between 2000 and 2018, an average of 28.65% of the TP's grazing intensity exceeded the safe boundary of ecosystem services, mainly in the central parts of the semi-arid, semi-humid, and humid/semi-humid regions. The results suggest that determining safe grazing boundaries can help in the rational planning of grazing intensity and space, promoting the efficient use of ecological resources and providing a reference for the sustainable development of the TP.

DroughtStats: A comprehensive software for drought monitoring and analysis

The significance of drought monitoring and prediction systems has grown substantially due to the escalating impacts of climate change. However, existing tools for drought analysis face several limitations, including restricted functionality to single-variable indices, reliance on predefined probability distributions, lack of flexibility in choosing distributions, and the need for advanced programming expertise. These constraints hinder comprehensive and accurate drought assessments. This study introduces DroughtStats, a novel, user-friendly software designed to overcome these challenges and enhance drought analysis capabilities. DroughtStats integrates advanced statistical tools to analyze hydrometeorological data, compute both single-variable and multivariable drought indices using empirical and parametric methods, and evaluate drought characteristics with improved accuracy. Notably, it supports a broader range of probability distributions, performs copula-based analyses, and estimates potential evapotranspiration using multiple methods, including Penman–Monteith. Additionally, DroughtStats can analyze the relationship between different datasets using techniques like copula-based Kendall’s tau. By addressing the limitations of existing tools, DroughtStats provides a more flexible and comprehensive approach to drought monitoring. Its versatility and global applicability are demonstrated through a case study in Turkey’s Çoruh River Basin (CRB), where drought indices based on precipitation and streamflow are calculated to characterize drought conditions. The results show that DroughtStats can successfully identify and characterize drought events at various time scales, providing valuable insights into drought severity, frequency, and recovery, and offering a reliable tool for ongoing drought monitoring and management.

An analysis of the causes of Kenya’s extreme drought event in May 2023

An analysis of the causes of Kenya’s extreme drought event in May 2023

Growth resilience of Pinus latteri to extreme drought events across aridity gradients in southern Laos

Growth resilience of Pinus latteri to extreme drought events across aridity gradients in southern Laos

Species-specific responses of canopy greenness to the extreme droughts of 2018 and 2022 for four abundant tree species in Germany.

Germany experienced extreme drought periods in 2018 and 2022, which significantly affected forests. These drought periods were natural experiments, providing valuable insights into how different tree species respond to drought. The quantification of species-specific drought responses may help to identify the most climate-change-resilient tree species, thereby informing effective forest regeneration strategies. In this study, we used remotely sensed peak-season canopy greenness as a proxy for tree vitality to estimate the drought response of four widely abundant tree species in Germany (oak, beech, spruce, and pine). We focused on two questions: (1) How were the four tree species affected by these two droughts? (2) Which environmental parameters primarily determined canopy greenness? To address these questions, we combined a recently published tree species classification map with remotely sensed canopy greenness and environmental variables related to plant available water capacity (PAWC) and atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (VPD). Our results indicate that the more isohydric species featured a greater decline in canopy greenness under these droughts compared to the more anisohydric species despite similar soil moisture conditions. Based on spatial lag models, we found that the influence of PAWC on canopy greenness increases with increasing isohydricity while the influence of VPD decreases. Our statistical analysis indicates that oak was the only species with significantly higher canopy greenness in 2022 compared to 2018. Yet, all species are likely to be susceptible to accumulated drought effects, such as insufficient recovery time and increased vulnerability to biotic pathogens, in the coming years. Our study provides critical insights into the diverse responses of different tree species to changing environments over a large environmental gradient in Central Europe and sheds light on the complex interactions between soil moisture, climate variables, and canopy greenness. These findings contribute to understanding forests' climate-change resilience and may guide forest management and conservation strategies.