Event Files Research Articles

PorousMultiphaseFoam v2107: An open-source tool for modeling saturated/unsaturated water flows and solute transfers at watershed scale

The first releases of porousMultiphaseFoam proposed an open-source software suite to solve the equations for multiphase flow (generalized Darcy’s law) in porous media or groundwater flows (Richards' equation) by taking advantage of OpenFOAM, a finite volume platform with automatic discretization on three-dimensional unstructured grids and good parallel efficiency. Recently, the porousMultiphaseFoam toolbox has been confronted with complex cases of fast water flows and solute transfers in realistic hydrological configurations with variable forcing conditions (heterogeneous infiltration and local tracer injection). Several developments have been carried out to make it possible to simulate those cases, which extend the toolbox with: (i) a set of solvers dedicated to groundwater flows, including coupled water flow and solute transport and simplified 2D approaches, (ii) improved numerical techniques for problems with strong non-linearities, (iii) libraries/executables for pre-processing of input data (geographical information and time-variable forcing terms) and (iv) passive or coupled scalar transport (tracer) with groundwater solvers that support any number of species. New solvers are validated on several (un-)saturated configurations by a direct comparison with a well validated finite element code. Program summaryProgram title: porousMultiphaseFoam v2107CPC Library link to program files:https://doi.org/10.17632/hphn58ksfy.1Developer's repository link:https://github.com/phorgue/porousMultiphaseFoam.gitLicensing provisions: GNU GPLv3Programming language: C++ / OpenFOAMJournal reference of previous version: Computer Physics Communications 187 (2015) 217-226Does the new version supersede the previous version?: YesReasons for the new version: Multiple new features of the toolbox dedicated to groundwater flows (with pre-processing tools)Summary of revisions:–Solvers:–groundwaterFoam/stationaryGroundwaterFoam: new unsaturated flow (transient/stationary) solvers in porous media (Richards' equation) using Picard or Newton's method for linearization.–groundwater2DFoam/stationaryGroundwater2DFoam: new 2D (transient/stationary) solver for saturated flow in porous media.–porousScalarTransportFoam/porousScalarTransport2DFoam: new passive multi-scalar transport solvers on pre-computed flow fields (3D unsaturated or 2D saturated fields).–groundwaterTransportFoam/groundwaterTransport2DFoam: new solvers coupling flow modeling (2D saturated or 3D unsaturated) with multi-scalar tracers transports.–Improved numerical techniques–Timestep management: time-stepping is now based on the temporal truncation of the time scheme used (backward Euler 1st and 2nd order, Crank-Nicolson).–Linearization techniques: problems of unsaturated flow with strong non-linearities can now be solved using an algorithm based on Newton's method.–Libraries:–numericalMethods: the EulerD3dt3Scheme class allows computation of the 3rd-order time derivative to estimate the truncation error and the JacobianMatrix class computes the Jacobian using finite differencing (expensive method used only for debugging).–toolsGIS: new dynamic library for managing GIS (Geographical Information System) files and event files. Events are variable and localized source terms for fluid or scalar transport.–Ippisch: an improved two-phase model for relative permeability and capillary pressure.–porousBoundaryConditions: several new boundary conditions have been added to handle heterogeneous pressure head boundary conditions and variable fluid or tracer injections (using event files).–Utilities:–setBoundaryHeadPressure: pressure head initializer for boundary conditions using uniform value of GIS files.–setFieldsFromDEM/setFieldsFromXY: heterogeneous initializer for internal fields, similar to the classical OpenFOAM setFields, but using ordered (DEM) or unordered (XY) grid files.–darcyFoam: simple utility to calculate a single-phase flow in porous media.Nature of problem: The porousMultiphaseFoam toolbox was initially released with generic two-phase solvers for flow in porous media. Developments were carried out to model more specifically hydrogeological flows by including a groundwaterFoam solver for Richards' equation. However, many features required to simulate realistic configurations, such as event management for variable and heterogeneous forcing terms (infiltration / scalar source term) or suitable numerical techniques for complex configurations (high rate injection for unsaturated flow for example), were still missing. Moreover, the 2D approach with integration of vertical properties (for flow and tracer) was not present even though this is an indispensable tool for groundwater flow modeling due to its ease of implementation and its low computation cost.Solution method: Improved numerical techniques have been developed to solve realistic flows by handling strong non-linearities with Newton's method, and a wide range of time scales with time-stepping based on time truncation errors. Various solvers for groundwater flows have been developed to handle cases under different assumptions, including the aforementioned 2D approaches. Variants of these solvers were also developed to simultaneously solve the passive transport of any number of scalars (tracers) by the flow. A dynamic library has been developed to pre-process input data: event information for variable conditions, GIS file for spatial information.Additional comments including restrictions and unusual features: porousMultiphaseFoam v2107 requires an installation of OpenFOAM-v9. Dedicated branches are available on the developer's repository for compatibility with other versions of OpenFOAM. The following versions are compatible with the current version of porousMultiphaseFoam: v7, v8, v1906, v2006 and v2106. Older branches may be found in the repository link but do not contain all features.

Is Metformin Use Associated with Prolonged Overall Survival in Patients with Soft Tissue Sarcoma? A SEER-Medicare Study.

Metformin, an oral drug used to treat patients with diabetes, has been associated with prolonged survival in patients with various visceral carcinomas. Although the exact mechanisms are unknown, preclinical translational studies demonstrate that metformin may impair tumor cellular metabolism, alter matrix turnover, and suppress oncogenic signaling pathways. Currently used chemotherapeutic agents have not been very successful in the adjuvant setting or for treating patients with metastatic sarcomas. We wanted to know whether metformin might be associated with improved survival in patients with a soft tissue sarcoma. In patients treated for a soft tissue sarcoma, we asked: (1) Is there an association between metformin use and longer survival? (2) How does this association differ, if at all, among patients with and without the diagnosis of diabetes? The Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results-Medicare (SEER-Medicare) database was used to identify patients with a diagnosis of soft tissue sarcoma from 2007 to 2016. Concomitant medication use was identified using National Drug Codes using the Medicare Part D event files. This database was chosen because of the large number of captured sarcoma patients, availability of tumor characteristics, and longitudinal linkage of Medicare data. A total of 14,650 patients were screened for inclusion. Patients with multiple malignancies, diagnosis at autopsy, or discrepant linkage to the Medicare database were excluded. Overall, 4606 patients were eligible for the study: 598 patients taking metformin and 4008 patients not taking metformin. A hazard of mortality (hazard ratio) was analyzed comparing patients taking metformin with those patient groups not taking metformin and expressed in terms of a 95% confidence interval. Cox regression analysis was used to control for patient-specific, disease-specific, and treatment-specific covariates. Having adjusted for disease-, treatment-, and patient-specific characteristics, patients taking metformin experienced prolonged survival compared with all patients not taking metformin (HR 0.76 [95% CI 0.66 to 0.87]). Associated prolonged survival was also seen when patients taking metformin were compared with those patients not on metformin irrespective of a diabetes diagnosis (HR 0.79 [95% CI 0.66 to 0.94] compared with patients with a diagnosis of diabetes and HR 0.77 [95% CI 0.67 to 0.89] compared with patients who did not have a diagnosis of diabetes). Without suggesting causation, we found that even after controlling for confounding variables such as Charlson comorbidity index, tumor grade, size, stage, and surgical/radiation treatment modalities, there was an association between metformin use and increased survival in patients with soft tissue sarcoma. When considered separately, this association persisted in patients not on metformin with and without a diabetes diagnosis. Although metformin is not normally prescribed to patients who do not have a diabetes diagnosis, these data support further study, and if these findings are substantiated, it might lead to the performance of multicenter, prospective clinical trials about the use of metformin as an adjuvant therapy for the treatment of soft tissue sarcoma in patients with and without a preexisting diabetes diagnosis. Level III, therapeutic study.

Exploring the home healthcare workforce in Alzheimer's disease and related dementias: Utilization and cost outcomes in US community dwelling older adults

ObjectiveThis study assessed home health care use associated with Alzheimer's Disease and related dementias (ADRD) in US community dwelling older adults, including workforce, intensity, and cost outcomes. Materials and methodsMedical Expenditure Panel Survey (2010–2018) household and home care event files were used to identify adults ≥ 65 years with ADRD. Outcomes included home health care provider type, intensity of care use, and annual direct home care cost. All analyses applied person weights for national estimates. ResultsAmong the 20,443 eligible older adults, 4.2% (n = 843) reported ADRD. Among all professional and non-professional health care workers, nurse practitioners (NPs, 38.5%) and home health care aids (35.6%) were most used. Comparing ADRD vs non-ADRD: the annual per-person average number of days in home care was 110 vs. 64 (p<0.001) and home care costs accounted for 30.8% vs. 7.5% of total health care costs. After adjusting for participants' characteristics, those with ADRD were more likely to use home health care (OR = 4.32, 95% CI=3.29 – 5.68) and showed 229% (95% CI = 175% - 297%) higher associated costs than controls (p<0.001). ConclusionThe study provides insight into the home care workforce. Of the professional workforce NPs were most often used and home care aides dominated the non-professional workforce. As expected, ADRD increased the likelihood and intensity of home health care utilization and associated direct home care costs significantly.

Effects of Prescription Opioid Use on Traumatic Brain Injury Risk in Older Adults.

The objective of this study was to estimate the risk of traumatic brain injury (TBI) associated with opioid use among older adult Medicare beneficiaries. Five percent sample of Medicare administrative claims obtained for years 2011-2015. A total of 50 873 community-dwelling beneficiaries 65 years and older who sustained TBI. Case-crossover study comparing opioid use in the 7 days prior to TBI with the control periods of 3, 6, and 9 months prior to TBI. TBI cases were identified using ICD-9 (International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision) and ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision) codes. Prescription opioid exposure and concomitant nonopioid fall risk-increasing drug (FRID) use were determined by examining the prescription drug event file. The 8257 opioid users (16.2%) were significantly younger (mean age 79.0 vs 80.8 years, P < .001). Relative to nonusers, opioid users were more likely to be women (77.0% vs 70.0%, P < .001) with a Charlson Comorbidity Index of 2 or more (43.7% vs 30.9%, P < .001) and higher concomitant FRID use (94.0% vs 82.7%, P < .001). Prescription opioid use independently increased the risk of TBI compared with nonusers (OR = 1.34; 95% CI, 1.28-1.40). In direct comparisons, we did not observe evidence of a significant difference in adjusted TBI risk between high- (≥90 morphine milligram equivalents) and standard-dose opioid prescriptions (OR = 1.01; 95% CI, 0.90-1.14) or between acute and chronic (≥90 days) opioid prescriptions (OR = 0.93; 95% CI, 0.84-1.02). Among older adult Medicare beneficiaries, prescription opioid use independently increased risk for TBI compared with nonusers after adjusting for concomitant FRID use. We found no significant difference in adjusted TBI risk between high-dose and standard-dose opioid use, nor did we find a significant difference in adjusted TBI risk between acute and chronic opioid use. This analysis can inform prescribing of opioids to community-dwelling older adults for pain management.

Further Evidence for the Binding and Retrieval of Control-States From the Flanker Task

In response-interference tasks, congruency effects are reduced in trials that follow an incongruent trial. This congruence sequence effect (CSE) has been taken to reflect top-down cognitive control processes that monitor for and intervene in case of conflict. In contrast, episodic-memory accounts explain CSEs with bottom-up retrieval of stimulus-response links. Reconciling these opposing views, an emerging perspective holds that memory stores instances of control - abstract control-states - creating a shortcut for effortful control processes. Support comes from a study that assessed CSEs in a prime-target task. Here, repeating an irrelevant context feature boosted CSEs, possibly by retrieving previously stored control-states. We present a conceptual replication using the Eriksen flanker task because previous research found that CSEs in the flanker task reflect different control mechanisms than CSEs in the prime-target task. We measured CSEs while controlling for stimulus-response memory effects and manipulated contextual information (vertical spatial location) independently from the stimulus information, which introduced the conflict (horizontal spatial location). Results replicate previous findings - CSEs increased for context-repetition compared to context-changes. This study shows that retrieval of control-states is not limited to a specific task or context feature and therefore generalizes the notion that abstract control parameters are stored into trial-specific event files.

Temporal expectancy modulates stimulus\u2013response integration

We can use information derived from passing time to anticipate an upcoming event. If time before an event varies, responses towards this event become faster with increasing waiting time. This variable-foreperiod effect has been often observed in response-speed studies. Different action control frameworks assume that response and stimulus features are integrated into an event file that is retrieved later if features repeat. Yet the role of foreperiods has so far not been investigated in action control. Thus, we investigated the influence of foreperiod on the integration of action-perception features. Participants worked through a standard distractor–response binding paradigm where two consecutive responses are made towards target letters while distractor letters are present. Responses and/or distractors can repeat or change from first to second display, leading to partial repetition costs when only some features repeat or repetition benefits when all features repeat (the difference constituting distractor–response binding). To investigate the effect of foreperiod, we also introduced an anti-geometric distribution of foreperiods to the time interval before the first response display. We observed that distractor–response binding increased with increasing foreperiod duration, and speculate that this was driven by an increase in motor readiness induced by temporal expectancy.

The Me-File: An Event-Coding Approach to Self-Representation.

Numerous authors have taken it for granted that people represent themselves or even have something like “a self”, but the underlying mechanisms remain a mystery. How do people represent themselves? Here I propose that they do so not any differently from how they represent other individuals, events, and objects: by binding codes representing the sensory consequences of being oneself into a Me-File, that is, into an event file integrating all the codes resulting from the behaving me. This amounts to a Humean bundle-self theory of selfhood, and I will explain how recent extensions of the Theory of Event Coding, a general theory of human perception and action control, provide all the necessary ingredients for specifying the mechanisms underlying such a theory. The Me-File concept is likely to provide a useful mechanistic basis for more specific and more theoretically productive experimentation, as well as for the construction of artificial agents with human-like selves.

GOALIATH: a theory of goal-directed behavior

Commonsense and theorizing about action control agree in assuming that human behavior is (mainly) driven by goals, but no mechanistic theory of what goals are, where they come from, and how they impact action selection is available. Here I develop such a theory that is based on the assumption that GOALs guide Intentional Actions THrough criteria (GOALIATH). The theory is intended to be minimalist and parsimonious with respect to its assumptions, as transparent and mechanistic as possible, and it is based on representational assumptions provided by the Theory of Event Coding (TEC). It holds that goal-directed behavior is guided by selection criteria that activate and create competition between event files that contain action-effect codes matching one or more of the criteria—a competition that eventually settles into a solution favoring the best-matching event file. The criteria are associated with various sources, including biological drives, acquired needs (e.g., of achievement, power, or affiliation), and short-term, sometimes arbitrary, instructed aims. Action selection is, thus, a compromise that tries to satisfy various criteria related to different driving forces, which are also likely to vary in strength over time. Hence, what looks like goal-directed action emerges from, and represents an attempt to satisfy multiple constraints with different origins, purposes, operational characteristics, and timescales—which among other things does not guarantee a high degree of coherence or rationality of the eventual outcome. GOALIATH calls for a radical break with conventional theorizing about the control of goal-directed behavior, as it among other things questions existing cognitive-control theories and dual-route models of action control.

Mind wandering at encoding, but not at retrieval, disrupts one-shot stimulus-control learning.

The one-shot pairing of a stimulus with a specific cognitive control process, such as task switching, can bind the two together in memory. The episodic control-binding hypothesis posits that the formation of temporary stimulus-control bindings, which are held in event-files supported by episodic memory, can guide the contextually appropriate application of cognitive control. Across two experiments, we sought to examine the role of task-focused attention in the encoding and implementation of stimulus-control bindings in episodic event-files. In Experiment 1, we obtained self-reports of mind wandering during encoding and implementation of stimulus-control bindings. Results indicated that, whereas mind wandering during the implementation of stimulus-control bindings does not decrease their efficacy, mind wandering during the encoding of these control-state associations interferes with their successful deployment at a later point. In Experiment 2, we complemented these results by using trial-by-trial pupillometry to measure attention, again demonstrating that attention levels at encoding predict the subsequent implementation of stimulus-control bindings better than attention levels at implementation. These results suggest that, although encoding stimulus-control bindings in episodic memory requires active attention and engagement, once encoded, these bindings are automatically deployed to guide behavior when the stimulus recurs. These findings expand our understanding of how cognitive control processes are integrated into episodic event files.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.3758/s13414-021-02343-9.

The Influence of Cognitive Load on Distractor-Response Bindings

Binding theories postulate an integration of stimulus and response features into temporary episodic traces or event files. In general, in the visual binding literature, attention is considered to be necessary to feature binding, and a higher cognitive load can lead to worse performance. On the other hand, in stimulus-response binding theories, central attention is not regarded as necessary in binding effects. A possible discrepancy between the visual feature binding findings and the findings in stimulus-response binding studies could lie in the amount of central load implemented, whereas another discrepancy was related to a specific type of process that was manipulated. In the present study, load was manipulated in three levels, such as no load, low load, and high load, and the binding effects were tested under each condition. Load was manipulated by using a secondary task, which was to be carried out simultaneously with the primary task. Additionally, the influence of targeting different working memory processes (maintenance and updating) was examined by varying the time point of the presentation of the secondary task. The results indicate that, under high load, binding effects are observed if memory contents are merely maintained, but not observed when memory contents are actively updated.

An event-coding account of attitudes

Attitudes (or opinions, preferences, biases, stereotypes) can be considered bindings of the perceptual features of the attitudes’ object to affective codes with positive or negative connotations, which effectively renders them “event files” in terms of the Theory of Event Coding. We tested a particularly interesting implication of this theoretical account: that affective codes might “migrate” from one event file to another (i.e., effectively function as a component of one while actually being part of another), if the two files overlap in terms of other features. We tested this feature-migration hypothesis by having participants categorize pictures of fictitious outer space characters as members of two fictitious races by pressing a left or right key, and to categorize positive and negative pictures of the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) as positive and negative by using the same two keys. When the outer space characters were later rated for likability, members of the race that was categorized by means of the same key as positive IAPS pictures were liked significantly more than members of the race that was categorized with the same key as negative IAPS pictures – suggesting that affective feature codes from the event files for the IAPS pictures effectively acted as an ingredient of event files for the outer space characters that shared the same key. These findings were fully replicated in a second experiment in which the two races were replaced by two unfamiliar fonts. These outcomes are consistent with the claim that attitudes, opinions, and preferences are represented in terms of event files and created by feature binding.

Neural dynamics of stimulus-response representations during inhibitory control.

The investigation of action control processes is one major field in cognitive neuroscience and several theoretical frameworks have been proposed. One established framework is the "Theory of Event Coding" (TEC). However, only rarely, this framework has been used in the context of response inhibition and how stimulus-response association or binding processes modulate response inhibition performance. Particularly the neural dynamics of stimulus-response representations during inhibitory control are elusive. To address this, we examined n = 40 healthy controls and combined temporal EEG signal decomposition with source localization and temporal generalization multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA). We show that overlaps in features of stimuli used to trigger either response execution or inhibition compromised task performance. According to TEC, this indicates that binding processes in event file representations impact response inhibition through partial repetition costs. In the EEG data, reconfiguration of event files modulated processes in time windows well-known to reflect distinct response inhibition mechanisms. Crucially, event file coding processes were only evident in a specific fraction of neurophysiological activity associated with the inferior parietal cortex (BA40). Within that specific fraction of neurophysiological activity, the decoding of the dynamics of event file representations using temporal generalization MVPA suggested that event file representations are stable across several hundred milliseconds, and that event file coding during inhibitory control is reflected by a sustained activation pattern of neural dynamics.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The "mental representation" of how stimulus input translate into the appropriate response is central for goal-directed behavior. However, little is known about the dynamics of such representations on the neurophysiological level when it comes to the inhibition of motor processes. This dynamic is shown in the current study.

Lower-level associations in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: Convergence between hyperbinding of stimulus and response features and procedural hyperfunctioning theories.

Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) can be characterized by enhanced cognitive functions related to creating, modifying and maintaining connections between stimuli and responses (S-R links). Specifically, two areas, procedural sequence learning and, as a novel finding, also event file binding, show converging evidence of hyperfunctioning in GTS. In this review, we describe how these two enhanced functions can be considered as cognitive mechanisms behind habitual behaviour, such as tics in GTS. Moreover, the presence of both procedural sequence learning and event file binding hyperfunctioning in the same disorder can be treated as evidence for their functional connections, even beyond GTS. Importantly though, we argue that hyperfunctioning of event file binding and procedural learning are not interchangeable: they have different time scales, different sensitivities to potential impairment in action sequencing and distinguishable contributions to the cognitive profile of GTS. An integrated theoretical account of hyperbinding and hyperlearning in GTS allows to formulate predictions for the emergence, activation and long-term persistence of tics in GTS.

Watching the Brain as It (Un)Binds: Beta Synchronization Relates to Distractor-Response Binding.

Human action control relies on event files, that is, short-term stimulus-response bindings that result from the integration of perception and action. The present EEG study examined oscillatory brain activities related to the integration and disintegration of event files in the distractor-response binding (DRB) task, which relies on a sequential prime-probe structure with orthogonal variation of distractor and response relations between prime and probe. Behavioral results indicated a DRB effect in RTs, which was moderated by the duration of the response-stimulus interval (RSI) between prime response and probe stimulus onset. Indeed, a DRB effect was observed for a short RSI of 500 msec but not for a longer RSI of 2000 msec, indicating disintegration of event files over time. EEG results revealed a positive correlation between individual DRB in the RSI-2000 condition and postmovement beta synchronization after both prime and probe responses. Beamformer analysis localized this correlation effect to the middle occipital gyrus, which also showed highest coherency with precentral and inferior parietal brain regions. Together, these findings suggest that postmovement beta synchronization is a marker of event file disintegration, with the left middle occipital gyrus being a hub region for stimulus-response bindings in the visual DRB task.

Perception-action integration in young age—A cross-sectional EEG study

Humans differ in their capacity for integrating perceived events and related actions. The “Theory of event coding” (TEC) conceptualizes how stimuli and actions are cognitively bound into a common functional representation (or “code”), known as the “event file”. To date, however, the neural processes underlying the development of event file coding mechanisms across age are largely unclear. We investigated age-related neural changes of event file coding from late childhood to early adulthood, using EEG signal decompositions methods. We included a group of healthy participants (n = 91) between 10 and 30 years, performing an event file paradigm. Results of this study revealed age-related effects on event file coding processes both at the behavioural and the neurophysiological level. Performance accuracy data showed that event file unbinding und rebinding processes become more efficient from late childhood to early adulthood. These behavioural effects are reflected by age-related effects in two neurophysiological subprocesses associated with the superior parietal cortex (BA7) as revealed in the analyses using EEG signal decomposition. The first process entails mapping and association processes between stimulus and response; whereas, the second comprises inhibitory control subprocesses subserving the selection of the relevant motor programme amongst competing response options.

The influence of stress on distractor-response bindings

Stimuli and responses that occur in close temporal contiguity are bound to each other and stored in short-term episodic traces or event files. A repetition of any of the features within an event file results in the retrieval of the entire event file and can influence responding. Along with task-relevant features, event files also contain task-irrelevant features, which are also bound to responses – distractor-response binding. In the present study, the distractor-response binding effect was examined under stress. Stress was induced via a Cold Pressor Test (CPT) and was manipulated between subjects. Distractor-response binding effects were measures at pre- and post-intervention. The CPT produced reliable effects on cortisol measurements and subjective ratings, however, no difference in the distractor-response binding effects between the groups was observed. Results are discussed against the background of the inconsistent results in the literature with respect to stimulus-response binding and stress.

Distinct Brain-Oscillatory Neuroanatomical Architecture of Perception-Action Integration in Adolescents With Tourette Syndrome

BackgroundGilles de la Tourette Syndrome (GTS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a peak of symptom severity around late childhood and early adolescence. Previous findings in adult GTS suggest that changes in perception-action integration, as conceptualized in the theory of event coding framework, are central for the understanding of GTS. However, the neural mechanisms underlying these processes in adolescence are elusive. MethodsA total of 59 children/adolescents aged 9 to 18 years (n = 32 with GTS, n = 27 typically developing youths) were examined using a perception-action integration task (event file task) derived from the theory of event coding. Event-related electroencephalogram recordings (theta and beta band activity) were analyzed using electroencephalogram–beamforming methods. ResultsBehavioral data showed robust event file binding effects in both groups without group differences. Neurophysiological data showed that theta and beta band activity were involved in event file integration in both groups. However, the functional neuroanatomical organization was markedly different for theta band activity between the groups. The typically developing group mainly relied on superior frontal regions, whereas the GTS group engaged parietal and inferior frontal regions. A more consistent functional neuroanatomical activation pattern was observed for the beta band, engaging inferior parietal and temporal regions in both groups. ConclusionsPerception-action integration processes lag behind in persisting GTS but not in the GTS population as a whole, underscoring differences in developmental trajectories and the importance of longitudinal investigations for the understanding of GTS. The findings corroborate known differences in the functional/structural brain organization in GTS and suggest an important role of theta band activity in these patients.

Location-response binding and inhibition of return in a detection task

In the present study, we investigated the binding of location and response in a detection task of the target-target paradigm of inhibition of return (IOR). Results showed a cost of responding to a target at the repeated location (IOR) when the response was not repeated and an effect of facilitation of return (FOR) when the response was repeated. These findings suggest that when responding to a target, its location and the response to it are integrated together. In addition, an analysis of the Vincentized cumulative response time (RT) distribution further showed that memory retrieval of event representations requires time to operate. These findings were discussed according to the theoretical framework of event files.

The level of representation of irrelevant stimuli\u2014Distractor\u2013response binding within and between the senses

Binding theories assume that features of stimuli and executed responses can be integrated together in one event file (Hommel, Visual Cognition, 5, 183–216, 1998; Hommel, Cognitive Sciences, 8, 494–500, 2004). Every reencounter with one or more of the stored features leads to an automatic retrieval of the previously constructed event file and hence of the response—even the repetition of a task-irrelevant distractor stimulus can retrieve a previously encoded response. This so-called distractor–response binding effect is typically investigated using a sequential prime-probe design that allows the orthogonal variation of response relation (response repetition vs. resporrevertnse change) and distractor relation (distractor repetition vs. distractor change), while probe response times and error rates are measured as dependent variable. Previous research has shown that task-relevant stimuli can be represented at different levels (e.g., perceptual and conceptual; see Henson et al., Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 376–384, 2014), yet it is not clear at which level of representation distractor stimuli are processed. In the present study, we focused on the level of representation of response-irrelevant distractor stimuli. To this end, a crossmodal distractor–response binding paradigm was used that enables the differentiation between the perceptual and conceptual representation of the distractor by allowing the systematic repetition and change of conceptual distractor features independent of perceptual repetitions. The results suggest that the repetition of perceptual distractor features is indispensable for the initiation of the retrieval process while the sole repetition of conceptual distractor features is not sufficient to start the retrieval process.

Perception-Action Integration Is Modulated by the Catecholaminergic System Depending on Learning Experience.

BackgroundThe process underlying the integration of perception and action is a focal topic in neuroscientific research and cognitive frameworks such as the theory of event coding have been developed to explain the mechanisms of perception-action integration. The neurobiological underpinnings are poorly understood. While it has been suggested that the catecholaminergic system may play a role, there are opposing predictions regarding the effects of catecholamines on perception-action integration.MethodsMethylphenidate (MPH) is a compound commonly used to modulate the catecholaminergic system. In a double-blind, randomized crossover study design, we examined the effect of MPH (0.25 mg/kg) on perception-action integration using an established “event file coding” paradigm in a group of n = 45 healthy young adults.ResultsThe data reveal that, compared with the placebo, MPH attenuates binding effects based on the established associations between stimuli and responses, provided participants are already familiar with the task. However, without prior task experience, MPH did not modulate performance compared with the placebo.ConclusionsCatecholamines and learning experience interactively modulate perception-action integration, especially when perception-action associations have to be reconfigured. The data suggest there is a gain control–based mechanism underlying the interactive effects of learning/task experience and catecholaminergic activity during perception-action integration.