Evaporative Resistance Research Articles

Tear film lipid layer and corneal oxygenation: a new function?

The classic model of tear film is composed of mucin layer, aqueous layer and the outermost tear film lipid layer (TFLL). The complex mixture of different classes of lipids, mainly secreted by meibomian glands, gives the TFLL unique physicochemical properties. Based on these properties, several functions of TFLL have been found and/or proposed such as the resistance to evaporation and facilitating the formation of a thin film. However, the role of TFLL in the oxygenation of the cornea, a transparent avascular tissue, has never been discussed in the literature. The continuous metabolic activity of the corneal surface and the replenishment of atmospheric gas creates an O2 gradient in the tear film. The molecules of O2 must therefore be transferred from the gas phase to the liquid phase through the TFLL. This process is a function of the diffusion and solubility of the lipid layer as well as interface transfer, which is influenced by alterations in the physical state and lipid composition. In the absence of research on TFLL, the present paper aims to bring the topic into the spotlight for the first time based on existing knowledge on O2 permeability of the lipid membranes and evaporation resistance of the lipid layers. The oxidative stress generated in perturbed lipid layers and the consequent adverse effects are also covered. The function of the TFLL proposed here intends to encourage future research in both basic and clinical sciences, e.g., opening new avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of ocular surface conditions.

MEASUREMENT OF LOCAL CLOTHING INSULATION AND EVAPORATIVE RESISTANCE OF THE HUMAN BODY UNDER FOUR AIR VELOCITY CONDITIONS

This study aims to examine the effect of airflow on local clothing insulation and evaporative resistance. Local clothing insulation and evaporative resistance of two types of summer clothing were measured under four different airflow conditions (0.15, 0.4, 1.0, 2.0 m/s). As a result, evaporative resistance has larger decrease than thermal insulation due to airflow. In addition, the magnitude of decrease in local clothing insulation and evaporative resistance were likely affected by direction of airflow and turbulence intensity.

Understanding Responses of Summer Continental Daily Temperature Variance to Perturbations in the Land Surface Evaporative Resistance

Abstract Understanding the roles of land surface conditions and atmospheric circulation on continental daily temperature variance is key to improving predictions of temperature extremes. Evaporative resistance (rs, hereafter), a function of the land cover type, reflects the ease with which water can be evaporated or transpired and is a strong control on land–atmosphere interactions. This study explores the effects of rs perturbations on summer daily temperature variance using the Simple Land Interface Model (SLIM) by mimicking, for rs only, a global land cover conversion from forest to crop/grassland. Decreasing rs causes a global cooling. The cooling is larger in wetter areas and weaker in drier areas, and primarily results from perturbations in shortwave radiation (SW) and latent heat flux (LH). Decreasing rs enhances cloud cover due to greater land surface evaporation and thus reduces incoming SW over most land areas. When rs decreases, wetter areas experience strong evaporative cooling, while drier areas become more moisture-limited and thus experience less cooling. Thermal advection further shapes the temperature response by damping the combined impacts of SW and LH. Temperature variance increases in drier areas and decreases in wetter areas as rs decreases. The temperature variance changes can be largely explained from changes in the combined variance of SW and LH, including an important contribution of changes in the covariance of SW and LH. In contrast, the effects of changes in thermal advection variance mainly affect the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes. Significance Statement This study aims to better understand processes governing daily near-surface air temperature variance over land. We use an idealized modeling framework to explore the effects of land surface evaporative resistance (a parameter that controls how hard it is to evaporate water from the surface) on summer daily temperature variance. We find that a uniform decrease of evaporative resistance across the global land surface causes changes in the temperature variance that can be predicted from changes in the combined variance of shortwave radiation and latent heat flux. The variance of horizontal advection is important in altering the temperature variance in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes. Our findings shed light on predicting the characteristics of temperature variability as a function of surface conditions.

Suppression of anthracite dust by a composite of oppositely-charged ionic surfactants with ultra-high surface activity: Theoretical calculation and experiments

In this study, we developed composite anionic–cationic (AC) surfactants with ultra-high surface activity using sodium alpha olefin sulfonate and octadecyltrimethylammonium chloride to improve the wettability and dust suppression efficiency of coal dust. Moreover, we investigated the synergistic suppression mechanisms of AC surfactant compounds at a molecular level. The thermodynamics of the self-assembly suggested that the surfactant molecules in the composite solution form a flexible alternating anion–cation bilayer. The analysis of the critical micelle concentration (CMC), surface tension (24.121 mN·m−1), contact angle (35.14°) and settling time (18 s) of the composite surfactant solution proved the superior performance of our composite surfactants compared to the monomeric alternatives, resulting in enhanced wettability owing to an ultra-high surface activity. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) experiments revealed an increased number of hydrophilic groups on the surface of the composite surfactant-treated anthracite, explaining the microscopic mechanism behind the high wettability induced by the composite surfactant. The specific surface area and pore size distribution of anthracite before and after dust suppressant treatment were calculated, and it was concluded that the dust suppressant was adsorbed on the surface and in the pores of the anthracite. In addition, the microscopic external morphology of the anthracite was shown by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and it was found that the dust suppressant showed filling and aggregation behavior. Wind erosion and evaporation resistance experimental results show that dust suppressant-treated coal dust has enhanced water retention and wind resistance. Our findings indicate that ionic surfactants with oppositely charged compounds are promising high-efficiency dust suppressants, laying the foundation for safe coal mining and providing a theoretical background for a broad range of applications, such as haze control.

Creation of a methodology for determining the intensity of moisture evaporation within vacuum drying of fruits

The study objects were the Republic of Kazakhstan selection apple sorts: “Baiterek”, “Sarkyt” and “Saya”, also pear sorts: “Syilyk”, “Zhazdyk” and “Nagima”. Study of the process of moisture evaporation within vacuum drying of the fruits has essential value in the nutritional value saving. Basically, the product evaporative capacity is characterized by the evaporation resistance coefficient ‒ µ. Also during moisture removal, thermodynamic state of moisture changes that is described by water activity indicator ‒ aw. Experimental determination of these parameters allows for the analyzing moisture evaporation during vacuum drying process. Studies have established the following evaporation resistance coefficients: µ=2.03±0.07 for apple sorts and µ=2.3±0.05 for pear sorts. Either water activity decreases from 1.0 to 0.62±0.01 for apple sorts and from 1.0 to 0.65±0.04 for pear sorts. Two drying periods are discovered. The first drying period: 5.45–6.10 h for apple sorts; and 6.12–6.25 h. for pear sorts. The second drying period duration: 4.15–3.50 h for apple sorts; and 4.35–4.48 h for pear sorts. The critical humidity value: 27.1±2.1 % for apple sorts; and 30.1±2.5 % for pear sorts. Comparative analysis of calculated and experimental data shows maximum deviations 22.5 % for apple sorts and 23 % for pear sorts. The proposed equation for the calculating a moisture evaporation rate, considering the product properties and the hygroscopic parameters of air, can be used in practice to study the moisture evaporation dynamics from the product surface. The study results allow for the selecting an optimal mode for vacuum drying of apples and pears sorts in order to safe nutritional value and to produce biologically active additives for the food industry

Study on the performance and mechanism of extracellular polymer substances (EPS) in dust suppression

Microbial dust suppressants are a green method to prevent and control coal dust, but the role of extracellular polymer substances (EPS) has rarely been studied. Therefore, this paper studied the effect of different EPS concentrations (0, 0.05%, 0.10%, and 0.15% w/v) on dust suppression. The results showed that the dust suppression efficiency increased with the EPS concentration. When the EPS concentration reached 0.15%, the evaporation resistance and wind erosion resistance of coal dust were improved by 37.5% and 89.0%, respectively, compared with water-treated samples (p < 0.05). The contact angle of EPS-added samples was lower than that of water-treated samples and decreased to 57.35° at the highest concentration (0.15%), indicating that EPS enhanced the wettability and reduced the surface tension. Furthermore, changes in the protein and polysaccharide contents in EPS before and after dust suppression showed that the adhesion effect of polysaccharides was greater during dust suppression.

Effect of Model Tear Film Lipid Layer on Water Evaporation.

A majority of in vitro models were incapable of reproducing the evaporation resistance of tear film lipid layer (TFLL) in vivo. The purpose of this research is to develop a novel in vitro model to study the effect of TFLL on water evaporation. A ventilated, closed-chamber, droplet evaporimeter with a constant surface area has been invented to study the evaporation resistance of TFLL. This evaporimeter ensures a rigorous control of environmental conditions, including the temperature, relative humidity, airflow rate, surface area, and surface pressure, thus allowing for reproducible water evaporation measurements over a time period of only 5 minutes. The volumetric evaporation rate of this droplet evaporimeter is less than 2.7 µL/min, comparable to the basal tear production of healthy adults. Together with direct film imaging using atomic force microscopy (AFM), we have studied the effect of a model TFLL on water evaporation, as a function of the lipid composition and surface pressure. A model TFLL composed of 40% wax esters, 40% cholesteryl esters, and 20% polar lipids was capable of reducing the water evaporation rate by 11% at surface pressure 47 mN/m. AFM revealed that the model TFLL at high surface pressures consists of discrete droplets/aggregates of the nonpolar lipids residing atop a polar lipid monolayer with phase separation. The TFLL may resist water evaporation with a combined mechanism by increasing film compactness of the polar lipid film at the air-water surface, and, to a lesser extent, by increasing film thickness of the nonpolar lipid film.

Thermal comfort analysis of auto-racing suits using a dynamic thermal manikin

Motorsports athletes compete at high speeds for, on average, three to four hours in a cockpit that can reach temperatures of 50°C. While engineers have worked to create a faster car and safer conditions, the comfort of the driver is often sacrificed. Motorsports governing bodies require that a driver’s racing suit meet at least one of several certification levels for thermal protection. While much research and testing go into certification, there continues to be a lack of information in the body of research regarding the impact of the racing suit on thermal comfort and heat stress. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to determine the impact of auto-racing personal protective clothing on the thermal comfort of race car drivers by utilizing a thermal manikin to observe the thermal insulation, evaporative resistance, and total heat loss (THL) of standard racing suits. Racing suit systems of varying SFI Foundation, Inc. (SFI) certification levels were purchased and analyzed using an ANDI sweating thermal manikin in an environmental chamber. Results from this research demonstrate that the average predicted THL for an SFI compliant racing ensemble is 172 W/m2. Findings indicate it is more beneficial for thermal comfort to wear a lower rated suit with base layers as opposed to a higher rated suit without undergarments. More research must be done to better understand how the predicted THL for racing ensembles effects the human body when performing under race day conditions, and to determine a minimum THL benchmark for racing ensembles.

Local effects of printed logos and reflective striping fixed to firefighter clothing material packages under low radiation exposure.

Notifications that related 1st degree burns to reflective striping and impermeable clothing elements did reach the investigators, while the mechanisms behind this phenomenon are still unclear. Material tests for thermal and evaporative resistance, and for heat transmission under dry and wet conditions at low radiation levels were done to evaluate the performance of protective clothing with and without printed logos or reflective striping. The results under the specified conditions showed reduction of heat loss capacity under impermeable elements from dry to wet conditions. Reflective surfaces, even when more impermeable, showed still lower heat transmission through the textile package than materials without striping under tested moisture and radiation combinations. It can be expected that the reported 1st degree burns were related to clothing design and tightness/fit rather than to reflective striping. However, due to the fine balance between clothing thermal and evaporative resistance, outer material emissivity, moisture quantity and location in clothing and applied radiation level, a different setup could lead to different results.

A modelling framework for local thermal comfort assessment related to bicycle helmet use

Thermal discomfort due to accumulated sweat increasing head skin wettedness may contribute to low wearing rates of bicycle helmets. Using curated data on human head sweating and helmet thermal properties, a modelling framework for the thermal comfort assessment of bicycle helmet use is proposed. Local sweat rates (LSR) at the head were predicted as the ratio to the gross sweat rate (GSR) of the whole body or by sudomotor sensitivity (SUD), the change in LSR per change in body core temperature (Δtre). Combining those local models with Δtre and GSR output from thermoregulation models, we simulated head sweating depending on the characteristics of the thermal environment, clothing, activity, and exposure duration. Local thermal comfort thresholds for head skin wettedness were derived in relation to thermal properties of bicycle helmets. The modelling framework was supplemented by regression equations predicting the wind-related reductions in thermal insulation and evaporative resistance of the headgear and boundary air layer, respectively. Comparing the predictions of local models coupled with different thermoregulation models to LSR measured at the frontal, lateral and medial head under bicycle helmet use revealed a large spread in LSR predictions predominantly determined by the local models and the considered head region. SUD tended to overestimate frontal LSR but performed better for lateral and medial head regions, whereas predictions by LSR/GSR ratios were lower and agreed better with measured frontal LSR. However, even for the best models root mean squared prediction errors exceeded experimental SD by 18–30%. From the high correlation (R > 0.9) of skin wettedness comfort thresholds with local sweating sensitivity reported for different body regions, we derived a threshold value of 0.37 for head skin wettedness. We illustrate the application of the modelling framework using a commuter-cycling scenario, and discuss its potential as well as the needs for further research.

Sustainable Footwear in Outdoor Sportswear Industries: An Effect of Recycled Fabric Configuration on a Thermal Sensation Model in the Foot

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of recycled fabrics (i.e., denim and hemp) on a thermal sensation model in the foot from the perspectives of fabric thermal properties and thermal sensation. The thermal and evaporative resistance of a two-layered material configuration, including recycled denim fabric and hemp fabric (recycled DH fabric), were compared with commercial calf-skin and pig-skin leathers (CP leather). For potential outdoor shoes, the thermal sensation model in the foot was proposed to predict thermal sensation with different fabrics in real time based on environmental conditions and fabric properties. The results showed that there were no significant differences between thermal insulation and evaporative resistance among the five different thicknesses of recycled DH fabrics. The thermal sensation model in the foot in the fabrics ranged from -0.7 (slightly cool) to 0.5 (slightly warm) in the case studied (25ºC, 45% relative humidity, and 0.5 m/s of air velocity). A similar thermal sensation among the recycled DH fabrics was observed with a maximum difference at the thermal sensation of 0.04. Therefore, the thermal sensation model in the foot of wearers wearing recycled DH fabrics and sustainable denim shoes is practically comparable to the thermal sensation of commercial shoes. This study can be used to provide fundamental knowledge regarding recycled material testing for developing outdoor sustainable products including footwear and clothing in sportswear industries.

Asymmetric Thermal and Water Vapor Transport of Polyester Spacer and Cotton Nonwoven Fabric Assembly

ABSTRACT Spacer fabric is often used in cushions, footwear, filter material, and other products because of its high air permeability and three-dimensional (3D) structure. However, for practical applications, it is typically combined with other materials. We investigated the thermal properties and water vapor permeability of assembly-combined thicker spacer (16 mm) and various cotton nonwoven fabrics. The assembly-combined lightest nonwoven (30 g/m2) and spacer fabric exhibited the highest thermal resistance, increasing by 66.62% compared with the bare spacer fabric; however, no significant difference was observed when combined with the heaviest woven fabric (60 g/m2). Furthermore, the fabric arrangement during assembly could affect the heat and moisture-transfer efficiencies. The assembly-combined lightest nonwoven (30 g/m2) and spacer fabric under the upward test condition exhibited the highest thermal resistance, highest Clo, lowest heat transfer coefficient, highest insulation ratio, and lowest evaporation resistance among all assemblies. Higher thermal resistance and lower evaporative resistance could benefit physiological comfort. However, the assembly-combined heaviest nonwoven and spacer fabric under the downward test condition exhibited similar thermal resistance to the spacer fabric and the highest evaporation resistance. The asymmetric heat- and moisture-transfer properties of a porous assembly can contribute toward developing new materials for applications in other engineering fields.

Study of the Coefficient Evaporation Resistance of Various Apples and Pears Varieties Growning in the Southern Regions of Kazakhstan

Studies have established that various drying periods are observed during the drying process: for example, for apple varieties, the first drying period is 5.45...6.10 hours, and for pear varieties 6.12 ...6.25 hours. The duration of the second drying period for apple varieties is 4.15...3.50 hours, and for pear varieties 4.35...4.48 hours. The analysis of the drying curve showed that the boundary between the periods of constant and falling land velocity, i.e. the critical humidity for apple varieties is on average 27 ± 2.1%, and for pear 30.1 ± 2.5%. An analysis of the kinetics of moisture evaporation shows that in an apple during the first four hours of drying, on average, 2.71 g evaporates, and for the next two hours it decreases monotonically to 2.31 g. The same picture of moisture evaporation dynamics is also observed for pears: for the first four hours, on average, 3.41 g evaporates, and for the next two hours, the evaporation dynamics decreases to 2.78 g. Studies have established that the coefficient of evaporation resistance for apple varieties: Baiterek, Sarkyt and Saya is µ = 2.03 ± 0.07, for pear varieties: Sylyk, Zhazdyk and Nagima is µ = 2.3± 0.05.

A Database of Static Thermal Insulation and Evaporative Resistance Values of Dutch Firefighter Clothing Items and Ensembles.

The rescue operations' environment can impair firefighters' performance and increase the risk of injuries, e.g., burns and hyperthermia. The bulk and carried weight of heavy protection contributes to lower physical performance, higher metabolic load and internal body heat production. For recommending optimal protection for the tasks and incident scenarios, knowledge of clothing thermal properties is needed. However, detailed data on firefighter protective clothing systems are not available. The aim of the study was to provide scientific background and a dataset that would allow for validation of thermo-physiological models for task-specific conditions of rescue work. Thermal insulation of 37 single items and their variations and 25 realistic protective clothing ensembles were measured on a thermal manikin. Twelve (12) ensembles that evenly covered the whole insulation range were selected for evaporative resistance testing. The equations for summing up individual item's insulation to ensemble insulation and calculating clothing area factor were derived from the dataset. The database of a firefighter clothing system was created. In addition, the local and regional thermal properties of the clothing ensembles were provided for use in future validation of advanced thermo-physiological models for rescue worker exposure predictions and for designing decision aid tools.

Characterization of Sweat Drying Performance of Single Layered Thermal Protective Fabrics Used in High-Risk Sector Workers' Clothing.

Absorption and transportation of moisture from sweat are the crucial properties of the fabrics used in performance clothing. Sweat moisture is a significant factor that may cause discomfort to the wearer. The majority of the injuries and fatalities that happen to the high-risk sector workers in their line of duty may be caused by inadequate comfort provided by the protective uniform. The purpose of this study is to scientifically investigate the sweat drying performance of the different protective fabrics used in high-risk sectors' workers' clothing. Firstly, this study experimentally analyzed the sweat drying of protective fabrics with different attributes under various ambient environments and wearers' internal physiology. Secondly, this study explained the phenomena of sweat drying in protective fabric through the theory of heat and mass transfer. Sweat drying performance of the fabrics used in functional clothing mainly depends on the evaporative resistance regardless of the presence of water and oil repellent coating on the fabric surface. The drying performance increases with the increased wetted area and increased air flow. The wetted area depends on the absorption and wicking properties of the fabrics. The findings of this research will advance the field by developing knowledge on sweat drying performance of fabrics used in protective clothing; in turn, this could provide better comfort and safety to high-risk sectors' workers.

Experimental investigation of nano-particle deposited wick Structure's heat transfer characteristics

Recently, nanotechnology attracts more and more attention in heat transfer system. Many studies have shown that using nanofluid as the working fluid can improve the thermal performance of the heat pipe. In this paper, the preliminary effort of applying nano-surface engineering on the heat pipe wick to fabricate the nano-structured wick structure has been carried out. Experimental investigation has been performed to determine the effect of the heat source power, mesh aperture and the wick surface structure on the total thermal resistance of the wick structure. When the heat source power increased from 20 W to 30 W, then to 50 W, the evaporation resistance decreases 25.9% and 13.7% respectively, while the conduction resistance increases 24.8% at first and then decreases 9.5%. The evaporation resistance is less with than without the wick structure, and it increases with the increase of mesh aperture. When the mesh aperture increases from 75 μm to 150 μm, then to 460 μm, the evaporation resistance increases 1.9% and 1.7% respectively. Whereas, the wick structure, as well as the mesh aperture have slight influence on the conduction resistance. The experimental results suggest that the nano structure on the surface can efficiently decrease the evaporation resistance but increase the conduction resistance at the same time. Compared to the wick structure with smooth surface, the evaporation resistance of nano-surface deposited by 0.01% TiO2 and 0.02% TiO2 has decreased 4.3% and 15.5%, respectively. This study provides a reference for the preparation of the heat pipe with greater performance in the future.

Modelling of heat and mass transfer in clothing considering evaporation, condensation, and wet conduction with case study

Over the past few decades, several models of heat and mass transfer have been based on the assumption of the homogeneous thickness (or absence) of the enclosed air layer contradicting the real-life scenario of the skin-clothing-environment system. To address this research gap, in this study, the comprehensive model for heat and mass transfer was developed which considers thermal phenomena such as evaporation, condensation, and the effect of liquid moisture on the thermal insulation of fabrics (wet conduction) along with sensible heat transfer mechanisms and effects of spatial heterogeneity of air layers. The coupling between heat and mass transfer in the modelling approach resulted in an accurate evaluation of the mass of evaporated liquid moisture and condensed water vapour in a skin-clothing-environment system. The developed model is systematically validated with an increasing level of spatial complexity using homogeneous and heterogeneous air layers with single-layer and multi-layer clothing ensembles. The model is validated for 21 different experimental cases covering various parameters that affect mass transfer such as enclosed air gap thickness (clothing fit), evaporative resistance (permeable, semi-permeable, and impermeable to water vapour), ambient temperature (−10 °C to 34 °C), and relative humidity (80% to 18.5%). Finally, the relevance of the model for product development is demonstrated by a case study about smart skiwear. The presented study provides detailed insights into individual heat and mass transfer mechanisms in the skin-clothing-environment system, which is very useful to develop an in-depth understanding about local heat transfer mechanisms and for designing and development of functional and protective clothing.

Fashion requirements influencing sensorial and thermal comfort of clothing

Fashion experts when designing new clothing firstly focus their attention on design, style, colours and fit of the product, and then they have to consider structure and materials of the developed garment. However, all these components of the garment design, namely the fabric structure, composition and finishing will influence the sensorial and thermal comfort of clothing. In the paper, selected parameters of clothing comfort, namely fabric drape, friction coefficient and thermal &amp; evaporation resistance as well as special methods of their testing are shortly described, and the possible effect of these paramaters on clothing design is outlined.

Clothing air gaps in various postures in firefighters’ work

Both the physical properties of the fabric materials used in clothing and the effective design of the clothing, primarily in terms of the air gap thickness, restrict the transmission of the thermal energy from the heat source to the firefighter’s body. The air gap distribution over the body in real deployment conditions of firefighters will vary, and is likely to be different from the air gap distribution in standardised manikin tests in standing upright posture. In this study, we investigated differences in the distribution of air layers in firefighters' clothing in three postures reflecting realistic on-duty exposure conditions (crawling, hose-holding, and standing upright used in laboratory tests) using 3D body scanning technology. The body posture induced substantial changes in the air gap thickness on the upper body (chest and back) and lower body. These changes were reflected in both the thermal and evaporative resistance of the ensemble, and consequently, in their potential thermal performance in the field. Therefore, it is recommended to consider body postures during the evaluation of clothing protective performance. Secondly, the knowledge of local clothing properties in real-life exposure provides a true protection mapping and gives design inputs to improve the local protective properties of firefighters' clothing.

Impact of soil texture and salt type on salt precipitation and evaporation under different hydraulic conditions

AbstractSalt precipitation and evaporation in porous media is an important research topic. However, several aspects remain controversial; notably, whether efflorescence inhibits evaporation in wet soil, the influence of soil texture on salt crust formation and the effect of sulphate precipitation on evaporation under changing hydraulic conditions. Therefore, this study investigates the influence of salt type (NaCl and Na2SO4) and soil texture (sandy soil, sandy loam and silt loam) on salt precipitation and evaporation under different hydraulic conditions (with and without fixed groundwater). Our results demonstrated that a NaCl salt crust strongly inhibited evaporation, even from wet soil (with groundwater), owing to its denser salt structure, which inhibited fluid flow. Moreover, the salt crust pattern differed based on soil texture. Relatively thin, flat and uniform salt crusts were developed in finer soils (silt loam), with greater evaporation resistance, whereas thick and rough salt crusts were developed in coarser soil (sandy soil), with less evaporation resistance. Na2SO4 was precipitated as subflorescence in drying soil, whereas wet soils exhibited a mixed salt precipitation pattern including both efflorescence and subflorescence. Notably, evaporation was primarily inhibited by efflorescence, rather than subflorescence. Our research provides novel insights into the dynamics of salt precipitation and evaporation in natural soils.