Evaporation Ponds Research Articles

A feasibility study of a small-scale photovoltaic-powered reverse osmosis desalination plant for potable water and salt production in Madura Island: A techno-economic evaluation

• Techno-economic analysis of a small-scale PV-RO desalination plant in Madura Island. • Potable water production of 11.6 m 3 /day with an annual solar contribution of 84 % • The levelized cost of water production using PV-RO desalination plant is 9.0 USD/m 3. • Payback period of PV-RO plant is 4 years for plant lifetime of 25 years. • PV-RO plant usage can increase salt production effectiveness of the salt farmers. The use of reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant powered by a photovoltaic (PV) system is an attractive solution for small-scale applications in Madura Island (Indonesia). In this paper, the techno-economic feasibility of a small-scale grid-connected PV-RO desalination plant has been carried out in Madura Island for a plant capacity of 11.6 m 3 /day. The RO brine concentrate is utilized for valuable salt production-via-evaporation ponds that allowed the reduction of the required size in the conventional salt evaporation ponds. The steady-state numerical model of the RO desalination plant was used to predict the plant's performance using the characteristics of commercial RO elements. The PV array simulation was carried out using a dynamic modelling and simulation program based on weather data of Madura Island. The result illustrates that the production of potable water and salt using a community-scale grid-connected PV-RO plant is economically viable to be implemented in the region. The payback period of this PV-RO plant is around 4 years for a considered plant lifetime of 25 years with an annual solar contribution of 84 %. The Levelized cost of water production using the PV-RO plant is about 9.0 USD/m 3 which is more cost-effective than the current cost of potable water in the region. Besides, the use of solar-assisted RO desalination plants in water-stressed regions such as Madura Island allows for mitigating the greenhouse gas emissions associated with seawater desalination.

Reverse Osmosis Membrane Zero Liquid Discharge for Agriculture Drainage Water Desalination: Technical, Economic, and Environmental Assessment.

Agricultural drainage water (ADW) represents a potential source for fresh water after receiving appropriate treatments to satisfy the water quality requirements. Desalination of ADW with medium salinity and moderate contamination with organic and inorganic chemical pollutants could provide a techno-economically feasible approach for facing water scarcity in arid areas. The current work presents a conceptual zero liquid discharge ADW desalination system proposed to treat 300,000 m3/d. The system is based on pretreatment to remove impurities harmful to desalination by staged reverse osmosis (RO) membrane. The brine from the last RO stage is treated via thermal vapor compression followed by evaporation in solar ponds to recover more fresh water and salts of economic value. The essential technical features of the proposed system components are formulated. The proposed system components and its technical and economic indicators are deduced using available software for water pretreatment, RO membrane, desalination, thermal desalination, and solar evaporation ponds. The system provides total distilled water recovery of about 98% viz. 294,000 m3/d in addition to recovered salts of 245,000 t/y. The net cost of water production amounts to USD 0.46 /m3. The environmental considerations of the system are addressed and advantages of applying zero liquid discharge system are elucidated.

Surface modified basalt membrane as a photothermal material for improved oily wastewater solar evaporation

ABSTRACT Oily wastewater is produced from many processes in petrochemical, food, pharmaceutical, mining, and metal industries. Proper management of oily wastewater discharges is required to mitigate their environmental impacts. Basalt fabric has been reported as being uniquely suitable for oily wastewater purification via solar evaporation due to its robust structure and surface chemistry. In this study, an efficient, low-cost, and scalable 3D photothermal evaporator was prepared by surface modification of basalt fabric with TiO2 nanoparticles for oily wastewater treatment and solar steam generation. The basalt membrane was coated with two types of TiO2 (Degussa P25 and nitrogen-doped TiO2) to enhance its hydrophilicity and photocatalytic properties important for fouling control. The basalt membranes were then tested for their impacts on water evaporation under various salinities and concentrations of gasoline constituents and crude oil. In pure water, the modified membrane system achieved an evaporation rate of 1.65 kg‧m−2‧h−1 under 1 sun irradiation, which is higher than the theoretical value of 1.47 kg‧m−2‧h−1 due to the 3D nature of the structure capable of harvesting energy from the environment. Crude oil significantly decreased the evaporation rate of the unmodified basalt membrane. However, the coating of TiO2 nanoparticles was found to ameliorate the fouling effect by increasing the membrane evaporation efficiency from 0.75 kg‧m−2‧h−1 to 1.42 kg‧m−2‧h−1 in a 2.0 g/L oily water composition. This technology is promising as a new approach to manage oily wastewater storage tanks and evaporation ponds in industry in addition to improving the efficiency of resource recovery.

Isolation and evaluation of brackish diatoms for the photobiological treatment of reverse osmosis concentrate

Abstract Recently, the use of brackish diatoms has been proposed to remove various inorganic constituents, such as dissolved silica, nutrients, calcium, and bicarbonate, to enhance the freshwater recovery in reverse osmosis (RO). In this study, nine strains of brackish diatoms isolated from water and sediment samples from several evaporation ponds in California and Arizona were examined for their ability to assimilate silica and remove other constituents from RO concentrate. In addition to two previously reported strains, namely Gedaniella flavovirens PEWL001 and Nitzschia communis PEWL002, several new isolates including Halamphora sydowii PEWL004, Nitzschia sp. PEWL008, and Halamphora sp. PEWL011 were found to remove more than 95% of silica, 95% of ammonia and orthophosphate, and more than 50% of calcium and carbonate within 6 days. Two additional G. flavovirens strains (Psetr3 and Psetr7) collected from a brackish lake in Aomori, Japan, also showed rapid dissolved silica uptake (32 mg L−1 day−1) comparable to the one isolated from an agricultural drainage water evaporation pond in the Central Valley, California. This study demonstrated that the brackish diatoms isolated from the evaporation ponds could be useful for the treatment of RO concentrate, which would possibly enable more sustainable desalination processes.

Early taphonomic processes in a microbial-based sedimentary system from a temperate salt-pan site (Cervia salterns, Italy)

AbstractIn the only salt evaporation pond retaining its natural setting of the historic Salina di Cervia (Italy), the northernmost salterns of the Mediterranean area, a number of potentially preservable textures derive from the interactions between photosynthetic mat producers and the sedimentary substrate. These morphologies occur at the beginning of the taphonomic processes when repeated emerged-submerged conditions take place. In these conditions the cohesive nature of the diatom- and cyanobacterial-derived mucilage favours the stabilization of otherwise ephemeral structures. Surface micromorphologies for which diatoms and cyanobacteria have played some active role when still living in the soft microlayer and down to the sediment-water interface, such as during the gliding motility, can overcome the surface layer of most intense mixing (i.e., the taphonomically active zone) and keep traces of them in the fossil record either as body fossils or as texture contributors. Tiny microbial-derived remnants, such as filaments and biofilm strands of halotolerant microorganisms, while fragile upon their formation, can therefore stabilize as biosignatures when combined with salt precipitation. Halophilic and halotolerant ecosystems are models for life in extreme environments (analogue sites) with similarity to those strongly suspected to occur and/or have occurred on Mars and on other planetary bodies. The study of hypersaline systems such as Salina di Cervia which harbour diverse and abundant microbial life, can be relevant for astrobiology since it allows the investigation of potential biosignatures and their preservation, and of further understand the range of conditions and the planetary processes sustaining potentially habitable systems.

Mining minerals and critical raw materials from bittern: Understanding metal ions fate in saltwork ponds

Seawater represents a potential resource for raw materials extraction. Although NaCl is the most representative mineral extracted other valuable compounds such as Mg, Li, Sr, Rb and B and elements at trace level (Cs, Co, In, Sc, Ga and Ge) are also contained in this “liquid mine”. Most of them are considered as Critical Raw Materials by the European Union. Solar saltworks, providing concentration factors of up-to 20 to 40, offer a perfect platform for the development of minerals and metal recovery schemes taking benefit of the concentration and purification achieved along the evaporation saltwork ponds.However, the geochemistry of these elements in this environment has not been yet thoroughly evaluated. Their knowledge could enable the deployment of technologies capable to achieve the recovery of valuable minerals. The high ionic strengths expected (0.5–7 mol/kg) and the chemical complexity of the solutions imply that only numerical geochemical codes, as PHREEQC, and the use of Pitzer model to estimate the activity coefficients of the different species in solution can be adopted to provide valuable description of the systems.In the present work, for the first time, PHREEQC Pitzer code database was extended to include the target minor and trace elements using Trapani saltworks (Sicily, Italy) as a case study system. The model was able to predict: i) the purity in halite and the major impurities contained, mainly Ca, Mg and sulphate species; ii) the fate of minor components as B, Sr, Cs, Co, Ge and Ga along the evaporation ponds. The results obtained pose a fundamental step in critical raw materials mining from seawater brine, for process intensification and combination with desalination.

Analysis of Regulatory Framework for Produced Water Management and Reuse in Major Oil- and Gas-Producing Regions in the United States

The rapid development of unconventional oil and gas (O&G) extraction around the world produces a significant amount of wastewater that requires appropriate management and disposal. Produced water (PW) is primarily disposed of through saltwater disposal wells, and other reuse/disposal methods include using PW for hydraulic fracturing, enhanced oil recovery, well drilling, evaporation ponds or seepage pits within the O&G field, and transferring PW offsite for management or reuse. Currently, 1–2% of PW in the U.S. is used outside the O&G field after treatment. With the considerable interest in PW reuse to reduce environmental implications and alleviate regional water scarcity, it is imperative to analyze the current regulatory framework for PW management and reuse. In the U.S., PW is subject to a complex set of federal, state, and sometimes local regulations to address the wide range of PW management, construction, and operation practices. Under the supervision of the U.S. Environment Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), different states have their own regulatory agencies and requirements based on state-specific practices and laws. This study analyzed the regulatory framework in major O&G-producing regions surrounding the management of PW, including relevant laws and jurisdictional illustrations of water rules and responsibilities, water quality standards, and PW disposal and current/potential beneficial reuse up to early 2022. The selected eastern states (based on the 98th meridian designated by the U.S. EPA as a tool to separate discharge permitting) include the Appalachian Basin (Marcellus and Utica shale areas of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia), Oklahoma, and Texas; and the western states include California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming. These regions represent different regulations; climates; water quantities; quality diversities; and geologic, geographic, and hydrologic conditions. This review is particularly focused on the water quality standards, reuse practices and scenarios, risks assessment, knowledge gaps, and research needs for the potential reuse of treated PW outside of O&G fields. Given the complexity surrounding PW regulations and rules, this study is intended as preliminary guidance for PW management, and for identifying the knowledge gaps and research needs to reduce the potential impacts of treated PW reuse on the environment and public health. The regulations and experiences learned from these case studies would significantly benefit other states and countries with O&G sources for the protection of their environment and public health.

Techno-economic assessment and feasibility study of a zero liquid discharge (ZLD) desalination hybrid system in the Eastern Mediterranean

The environmental consequences of brine disposal (i.e., marine pollution, soil salinization, and groundwater contamination) are a concern for desalination plants across the world. This techno-economic assessment and feasibility study explores for the first time both the performance and the feasibility of a zero liquid discharge (ZLD) desalination hybrid system for brine treatment and valorization in Eastern Mediterranean countries, namely, Greece, Cyprus, and Israel. The results revealed that the recovery rate (99.19%) is exceptional, while the energy demands are 20.23 kWh/m3, which is reasonable as three different desalination processes (namely, high-pressure reverse osmosis (HPRO), brine concentrator (BC), and brine crystallizer (BCr)) are integrated into the ZLD system. The ZLD system is at least 3.22 times less costly than evaporation ponds, and it is on par with deep-well injection and land application alternatives in terms of cost. Furthermore, the ZLD system is lucrative whether it markets only water or both water and solid salt. The profit gain from desalinated water sales ranges from US$196.36/day to US$285.63/day, with Cyprus and Greece having the highest and lowest profit gain, respectively. In respect of both desalinated water and salt sales, the profit gain increases by 7% for each location.

Concentration of Ammonia Pollution in Madura Traditional Salt Production Water

Ammonia (NH3) is one of the impurities in salt-producing water, which is often found in the traditional salt ponds of the Madurese. The purpose of this study was to determine the concentration of ammonia contamination as an impurity in salt production process water from raw water, reservoir ponds, evaporator ponds to geomembrane crystallizer ponds when salt production takes place in the salt ponds of Tanjungan Village, Bangkalan Regency. Determination of ammonia concentration using the phenate method based on SNI 06-6989.30-2005 with a spectrophotometer reading tool (UV-2700 Serial No. A11674900027) at a wavelength of 420 nm. The average concentration of ammonia as an impurity in raw materials in traditional pond ponds in Tajungan village, namely raw water is 2.31±0.24 mg/L, reservoir ponds are 2.56±0.57 mg/L, evaporator ponds are 2, 39±0.84 mg/L and the geomembrane crystallizer ponds are 1.37±0.09 mg/L. The highest average ammonia concentration was found in the reservoir ponds raw saltwater sample, while the lowest concentration was found in the geomembrane crystallizer ponds sample. The high average ammonia concentration in the salt ponds of Tajungan Village, Bangkalan Regency indicates that all raw saltwater in these ponds is contaminated with ammonia. The high concentration of ammonia in the salt ponds may be due to the entry of household waste. Keywords: (NH3), raw water, reservoir ponds, evaporation ponds, geomembrane crystallizer ponds

Bringing the Dead Sea to Life: Art and Nature at the Lowest Place on Earth

Bringing the Dead Sea to Life: Art and Nature at the Lowest Place on Earth

Structure and biosynthesis of carotenoids produced by a novel Planococcus sp. isolated from South Africa

BackgroundThe genus Planococcus is comprised of halophilic bacteria generally reported for the production of carotenoid pigments and biosurfactants. In previous work, we showed that the culturing of the orange-pigmented Planococcus sp. CP5-4 isolate increased the evaporation rate of industrial wastewater brine effluent, which we attributed to the orange pigment. This demonstrated the potential application of this bacterium for industrial brine effluent management in evaporation ponds for inland desalination plants. Here we identified a C30-carotenoid biosynthetic gene cluster responsible for pigment biosynthesis in Planococcus sp. CP5-4 through isolation of mutants and genome sequencing. We further compare the core genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic gene clusters identified from different Planococcus species’ genomes which grouped into gene cluster families containing BGCs linked to different carotenoid product chemotypes. Lastly, LC–MS analysis of saponified and unsaponified pigment extracts obtained from cultures of Planococcus sp. CP5-4, revealed the structure of the main (predominant) glucosylated C30-carotenoid fatty acid ester produced by Planococcus sp. CP5-4.ResultsGenome sequence comparisons of isolated mutant strains of Planococcus sp. CP5-4 showed deletions of 146 Kb and 3 Kb for the non-pigmented and “yellow” mutants respectively. Eight candidate genes, likely responsible for C30-carotenoid biosynthesis, were identified on the wild-type genome region corresponding to the deleted segment in the non-pigmented mutant. Six of the eight candidate genes formed a biosynthetic gene cluster. A truncation of crtP was responsible for the “yellow” mutant phenotype. Genome annotation revealed that the genes encoded 4,4′-diapolycopene oxygenase (CrtNb), 4,4′- diapolycopen-4-al dehydrogenase (CrtNc), 4,4′-diapophytoene desaturase (CrtN), 4,4′- diaponeurosporene oxygenase (CrtP), glycerol acyltransferase (Agpat), family 2 glucosyl transferase 2 (Gtf2), phytoene/squalene synthase (CrtM), and cytochrome P450 hydroxylase enzymes. Carotenoid analysis showed that a glucosylated C30-carotenoid fatty acid ester, methyl 5-(6-C17:3)-glucosyl-5, 6′-dihydro-apo-4, 4′-lycopenoate was the main carotenoid compound produced by Planococcus sp. CP5-4.ConclusionWe identified and characterized the carotenoid biosynthetic gene cluster and the C30-carotenoid compound produced by Planococcus sp. CP5-4. Mass-spectrometry guided analysis of the saponified and unsaponified pigment extracts showed that methyl 5-glucosyl-5, 6-dihydro-apo-4, 4′-lycopenoate esterified to heptadecatrienoic acid (C17:3). Furthermore, through phylogenetic analysis of the core carotenoid BGCs of Planococcus species we show that various C30-carotenoid product chemotypes, apart from methyl 5-glucosyl-5, 6-dihydro-apo-4, 4′-lycopenoate and 5-glucosyl-4, 4-diaponeurosporen-4′-ol-4-oic acid, may be produced that could offer opportunities for a variety of applications.

Pond Energy Dynamics, Evaporation Rate and Ensemble Deep Learning Evaporation Prediction: Case Study of the Thomas Pond—Brenne Natural Regional Park (France)

The energy of water masses is a first-order factor that controls the essential physicochemical dynamics of a water body. Its study allows one to understand the roots of the processes that occur at the water-mass, water-atmosphere and water-sediment interfaces. The analysis of the Thomas Pond in the Brenne region gives a valuable overview of energy stock evolution on a yearly scale. It highlights the direct impact of this evolution on thermal stratification and the potential for evaporation and exchange with the atmosphere. The study of evaporation remains challenging due to the complexity of the energy processes and factors involved. Its estimation using formulas, which are mostly empirical, is one of the most used means for studying the process. The studied pond shows a natural stratification during the summer season, however often fragile and disturbed by other climatic factors such as wind and precipitation. This disruption leads to increased exchanges between the pond and the atmosphere. The methods used to estimate pond-atmosphere exchanges, namely evaporation, vary in values ranging between 1 mm/d to > 15 mm/d. Among these methods, three stand out and seem to give reasonable values. This observation is based on the noticeable drop of the pond’s water level during the period of non-communication with the outside, which corresponds to 65 mm. The energy required for this evaporation varies between 600 W/m2 and 1500 W/m2, except for the Smith model, that slightly overestimates this parameter. The regulation of ponds’ water volumes by managers, the increased duration of bungs closure and the intermittence of precipitations in recent years exacerbate the reduction of direct inputs to ponds and the aggravates the impacts of a changing climate. Under the effect of increasing air temperatures, losses by evaporation will also increase significantly. If we generalise the results obtained to all of the Brenne Park water bodies (4500 ponds of the park), losses by evaporation will lead to a significant water deficit of the Loire basin. From this study, the use of deep learning ensemble models was found to provide better short-term predictions (RMSE between 0.003 and 0.006 for all methods), thus confirming the effectiveness of these methods for similar applications.

Exploratory environmental assessment of large-scale cultivation of seaweed used to reduce enteric methane emissions

Animal husbandry contributes to roughly 15% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions, of which the majority originates from methane emissions associated with ruminant enteric fermentation. Recent studies have shown that methane emissions from ruminants can be heavily reduced (up to 90% reduction) by introducing the seaweed Asparagopsis taxiformis in the feed composition. The largest hurdle in implementing a wider use of the seaweed feed supplement is to scale up the production. Today most of the production is performed in extensive ocean farming systems. In the small coastal city Lysekil, located on the Swedish west coast, an initiative for a land-based seaweed production system is currently in progress. In this study, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology was applied to assess the environmental impact of this production system. The assessment included all important stages in the seaweed production system, from cradle to farmgate. The results showed that a large part of the assessed impacts were attributed to the salt (NaCl) sourcing needed to increase the salinity to achieve optimal growing conditions. In the default scenario, the salt input contributed to 48% of the total GHG emissions. The scenario analysis showed that lower emissions could be obtained by changing the salt source from rock salt, sourced in Denmark, to sea salt sourced by using evaporation ponds in France. Moreover, increasing the water recycling rate could reduce salt demand and consequently the environmental impact. The results also displayed a large thermal energy demand used to increase the temperature in the water to more fitting conditions. Despite this, the environmental impact from thermal energy was relatively low, causing 16% of the total GHG emissions. The reason for this was explained by the use of low-impact district heating, mostly reliant on the excess heat from the local oil refinery. The scenario analysis showed that choices regarding thermal energy source and allocation method significantly impacted the overall results of the assessment. Furthermore, we argue that although the environmental impact from the excess heat from the oil refinery displayed low impact, the seaweed farm should consider using other thermal energy sources, since it is difficult to foresee the impact of the excess heat from the petrochemical industry as its main products are being phased out in decarbonization and climate neutrality schemes. An alternative thermal energy source with promising results was electric heat pumps powered by wind. We concluded that LCA methodology could be an important tool to optimize production systems before they are brought into operation.

Biochar from olive mill solid waste as an eco-friendly adsorbent for the removal of polyphenols from olive mill wastewater

In Tunisia, olive mill waste water (OMW) is discharged into evaporation ponds where they turn into solid waste (OMSW) and become a serious threat to the environment. This paper addresses for the first time how to valorize OMSW into a biochar (BC) that can be used as an adsorbent aiming at either the recovery or the removal of polyphenols from the OMW. In this work, BC was produced through the pyrolysis of OMSW. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) approach was used for optimization of the process parameters. Analysis of variance revealed that all four parameters (pH, adsorbent dosage, pyrolysis temperature and polyphenols loading) had a significant effect on the adsorption (p<0.05). pH proved to be the most highly significant variable. The nonlinear Freundlich isotherm model was found to better describe the experimental adsorption process (R2=0.9911), while maximum polyphenol adsorption at 30°C was 140.47mg/g. Indeed, OMW is known as a source of natural antioxidant such as Hydroxytyrosol. In this work, hydrxytyrosol proved to have a high adsorption affinity for the BC. Therefore, adsorption using BC is an appropriate technique that maximizes the recuperation of hydroxytyrosol. After detoxification, OMW is invested for a variety of applications.

Refinement of brine for lithium extraction using ion concentration polarization

• The ICP process shows separation of ions based on electrophoretic mobility. • Reduction of Mg 2+ :Li + is demonstrated with standard divalent ion exchange membrane. • The technical feasibility is compared with well-established electrodialysis platforms. The surge of electric vehicle deployment in response to the global climate crisis has marked tremendous increase in the demand of lithium-ion batteries. Lithium brine has gained much attention as a critical primary lithium resource over mineral sources due to cheaper processing and greater abundance. However, reducing the Mg 2+ :Li + ratio of brines remains a challenge, as magnesium contaminates lithium precipitates. Solar evaporation ponds are traditionally employed to concentrate Li and reduce Mg content to tackle this issue, but typically require 1–2 years to process a batch of feed solution, and require much land area disturbing the local environment near brine resources. Here we present a continuous, scalable ion separation technique for reducing the Mg 2+ :Li + ratio of brine as an alternative to solar evaporation. The device utilizes ion concentration polarization to induce a locally amplified electric field. The amplified electric field separates ions into streams according to electrophoretic mobility. We demonstrate reduction of a 25:1 Mg 2+ :Li + lab brine to below 10:1 Mg 2+ :Li + , which is an acceptable lithium production purity by industrial standards. Reduction of a 60:1 Mg 2+ :Li + to ∼ 10:1 and a 100:1 Mg 2+ :Li + brine to approximately 20:1 are also demonstrated. The system suffers a high specific energy consumption (8.804 kWh/g Li + for 25:1 reduction to 9:1) due to low lithium recovery (9.9%) and microfluidic system size. However, an economic scaling analysis shows that this work is within an order of magnitude of the state-of-the-art separation technologies in the literature after various process parameters are normalized. Ultimately, this work demonstrates a potential novel process for continuous lithium extraction from brines, which is a generalizable ion separation tool utilizing differences in electrophoretic mobility.

Management of agricultural saline drainage using system dynamics approach

AbstractAgricultural drainage water quality changes over time until it reaches a balance. In areas with shallow and saline groundwater, it might take several years to reach a balance. In such cases, knowledge of the quantity and quality of drainage water is necessary to manage it. The drainage water generated must then be managed for reuse purposes where it is of suitable quality and is finally discharged or disposed of. In this paper, the system dynamics technique was used to manage this drainage water. The study used the system dynamic programming tool VENSIM. The model developed in this study is capable of managing drainage water by combination of existing solutions such as mixture of irrigation water, used for downstream and cultivation of salt tolerant plants, used for irrigation of salt‐friendly plant, discharged into a river and discharged to evaporation ponds, simultaneously. The model was run using actual data for Khuzestan Province of Iran. The results showed that the model could be an opportunity for the design and management of drainage systems.

Solar Evaporation System Using Spray Pipe Method

Evaporation of water using a spray pipe is required to expand the contact between hot air and water surface so that the rate of evaporation of water becomes faster. Salt production in the case of solar evaporation may take weeks to obtain salt. This study aims to observe the correlation of flow rate and evaporation time on salinity by considering several potential factors. The experiment was carried out in two stages, the first stage on a small scale where spray evaporation was carried out in an evaporation pond with an area of 1x2 m2, seawater rate 0.8 – 2.0 L/min, seawater volume 100 L. The second stage of spray evaporation is carried out on an evaporation pond of 3x15 m, a flow rate of 0.3-0.6 L/s, and a seawater volume of 220 L. Observation of the evaporation time for 30 h at an evaporation rate of 0.6 L/s obtained a salinity of 22.6 Be while at a rate of 2L/min it could reach a degree of salinity 23.8Be within 90 h.

Feasibility and sustainability of evaporation ponds as final basins for industrial wastewater: statistical evaluation of gross parameters

Feasibility and sustainability of evaporation ponds as final basins for industrial wastewater: statistical evaluation of gross parameters

Analysis of the additional cost of addressing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance contamination from landfill leachate by reverse osmosis membranes in Thailand

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), persistent organic pollutants, have been found in landfill leachate (LL) and can lead to environmental contamination. Recently, more stringent global regulations to control the maximum levels of PFAS have forced landfill authorities to improve treatment technologies to meet higher effluent quality standards. This study analyzed the additional cost of the treatment process to remediate PFAS contamination from LL in Thailand using a two-pass reverse osmosis (RO) system, including pretreatment and the use of evaporation ponds. The total estimated LL volume from 111 sites of sanitary landfills was ascertained using the water balance method, and then the overall project cost in the form of the net present cost (NPC) was evaluated. The capital investment, expense, and related operating and maintenance costs over the project lifetime were taken into account. The results showed that the total estimated LL volume was 17.5 m3/yr. To handle this amount of LL, the NPCs of the RO system were found to be 577.9 mil. USD for the system with an evaporation pond and 391.9 mil. USD for the system without an evaporation pond. The treatment unit costs ranged from 1.72–2.71 USD/m3 for the system with an evaporation pond and ranged from 1.06 to 2.09 USD/m3 for the system without an evaporation pond, depending on the size of the landfills. Based on these results, technological, operational, financial, and regulatory policy recommendations are presented.

Assessment of the content of biogenic elements in the evaporation pond of the “Caspi Bitum” plant

The article presents the results of environmental monitoring of wastewater generated as a result of the production activities of the» Caspi Bitum « plant. The analysis of the content, distribution, and dynamics of biogenic elements in the evaporation pond belonging to the enterprise is carried out. Today, one of the most pressing problems is the industrial ingress of biogenic elements to water fields, which leads not only to changes in the chemical composition and quality properties of the reservoir, but also to salinization of beaches. Analysis of its composition, tracking the dynamics of biogenic elements in the pond water allows you to describe the overall state of the reservoir. This study was conducted for this purpose. The work is based on materials collected during field research on the evaporation pond of the «Caspi Bitum» plant from autumn 2018 and summer 2019. Samples are collected from the water surface at pre-set coordinates and sent for laboratory analysis. Chemical analyses of water samples were performed for the following parameters: ammonium nitrogen, phosphates, nitrites, nitrates and phenol. Also, the amount of these substances was reviewed and compared with the level of MPC according to regulatory documents. Hydrochemical analysis of samples was performed using photometric and ion chromatography methods. Data on biogenic elements in water allows predicting changes in the quality of water environments and is used in the regulation and control of the overall state and pollution of ecosystems in water.Key words: waste water, biogenic element, purification, evaporation pond, petroleum products.