Evaporation Experiments Research Articles

Petrophysical and geochemical evaluation of shales using magnetic resonance [formula omitted] relaxation correlation

Quantification of fluid and organic matter content of shale samples are principal goals of petrophysical and geochemical evaluation of shales that are essential to determine reservoir quality. While volumetric methods to characterize shales are cumbersome and destructive, 1H magnetic resonance (MR) methods are robust, fast, and non-destructive. However, short-lived MR signal lifetimes of shale samples challenge existing MR methods and motivate the development of new MR methods.Two-dimensional (2D) MR T1-T2 relaxation correlation is a powerful method to differentiate hydrogen-bearing species in porous materials. However, the experimental echo time limitation of the T1-T2 method precludes acquisition of important short lifetime signal components. In addition, due to overlap of signal components in T1-T2 correlations, quantification accuracy is impaired in shales. Here, we introduce the 2D MR T1-T2∗ relaxation correlation measurement for quantitative determination of shale 1H components.Liquid-rich shale samples from the Eagle Ford Formation were used in adsorption/desorption and evaporation experiments. 2D MR T1-T2 and T1-T2∗ correlations coupled with gravimetric measurements were performed to identify water, oil/bitumen, and kerogen peaks in the relaxation correlation maps. Peaks associated with shale components showed significant contrast in T1-T2∗ correlations. This allowed quantitative measurement of water and oil content using the signal intensity of each peak.

Quantitative imaging of sodium concentrations in soil-root systems using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

AimsDemonstrating the potential of MRI as a 3D, non-invasive and continuous measurement technique to map Na+ concentration distributions in soil and around roots.MethodsDissolved NaCl in soil and soil-plant systems was mapped by 3D 23Na-MRI. The lower limit of detectability in saturated and unsaturated porous media was evaluated, followed by evaporation experiments to test the quantification. Finally, Na+ enrichment around tomato roots, irrigated with saline solution under low/high transpiration rates (LT, HT), was imaged in parallel to the root system,.ResultsA spin echo pulse sequence allowed the quantitative mapping of the volume concentration of NaCl in sandy porous medium. Evaporation experiments showed slight enrichment in the top surface layer, plus uniform temporal enrichment in the deeper layers. In the tomato experiments, enrichment was more distinct under HT than under LT. Concentration-distance correlation curves revealed thin enrichment zones ranging a few mm around the roots.ConclusionsMRI can map Na+ non-invasively in 3D at relevant concentrations for root activity. Visualizing water content, roots and Na+ on the same scale is possible, despite limitations of different scanning times and resolution. This opens a route for further quantitative investigations of salt enrichment processes in soil and soil-plant systems.

Evaluating Organic Aerosol Sources and Evolution with a Combined Molecular Composition and Volatility Framework Using the Filter Inlet for Gases and Aerosols (FIGAERO).

ConspectusThe complex array of sources and transformations of organic carbonaceous material that comprises an important fraction of atmospheric fine particle mass, known as organic aerosol, has presented a long running challenge for accurate predictions of its abundance, distribution, and sensitivity to anthropogenic activities. Uncertainties about changes in atmospheric aerosol particle sources and abundance over time translate to uncertainties in their impact on Earth's climate and their response to changes in air quality policy. One limitation in our understanding of organic aerosol has been a lack of comprehensive measurements of its molecular composition and volatility, which can elucidate sources and processes affecting its abundance. Herein we describe advances in the development and application of the Filter Inlet for Gases and Aerosols (FIGAERO) coupled to field-deployable High-Resolution Time-of-Flight Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometers (HRToF-CIMS). The FIGAERO HRToFCIMS combination broadly probes gas and particulate OA molecular composition by using programmed thermal desorption of particles collected on a Teflon filter with subsequent detection and speciation of desorbed vapors using inherently quantitative selected-ion chemical ionization. The thermal desorption provides a means to obtain quantitative insights into the volatility of particle components and thus the physicochemical nature of the organic material that will govern its evolution in the atmosphere.In this Account, we discuss the design and operation of the FIGAERO, when coupled to the HRToF-CIMS, for quantitative characterization of the molecular-level composition and effective volatility of organic aerosol in the laboratory and field. We provide example insights gleaned from its deployment, which improve our understanding of organic aerosol sources and evolution. Specifically, we connect thermal desorption profiles to the effective equilibrium saturation vapor concentration and enthalpy of vaporization of detected components. We also show how application of the FIGAERO HRToF-CIMS to environmental simulation chamber experiments and the field provide new insights and constraints on the chemical mechanisms governing secondary organic aerosol formation and dynamic evolution. We discuss the associated challenges of thermal decomposition during desorption and calibration of both the volatility axis and signal. We also illustrate how the FIGAERO HRToF-CIMS can provide additional insights into organic aerosol through isothermal evaporation experiments as well as for detection of ultrafine particulate composition. We conclude with a description of future opportunities and needs for its ability to further organic aerosol science.

Numerical modeling of water–heat–vapor–salt transport in unsaturated soil under evaporation

Evaporation-induced soil salinization will threaten the durability of engineering buildings, and it is crucial to study the coupling effect of water–heat–vapor–salt (WHVS) for anticorrosion of porous materials. To analyze the coupled system, a modified and developed WHVS transport model is proposed under the conditions that the film water transport theory, surface tension affected by salt, the filling effect of precipitated salt on soil pores, the residual volumetric air content, the effect of salt on heat transport and storage and the effect of vapor flux and thermal radiation on thermal boundary are all taken into account. The predictions are validated and analyzed by the results obtained from evaporation experiments under different boundary conditions. The data of silica sand are from the literatures ([16,17,57]), and the data of silty clay are from our laboratory test. The results indicate that the calculated water content, solute concentration, temperature and evaporation rate are in good agreement with the experimental data, especially for silty clay. For silica sand, there are some deviations in concentration and temperature, and the overall agreement is satisfied. The consistency between the simulated and measured data shows the effectiveness of proposed model and that the model can be applied successfully in soil science and groundwater hydrology and can be extended to related disciplines.

Stable isotope fractionations in the evaporation of water: The wind effect

AbstractWe performed pan evaporation experiments with the objective of exploring the behaviour of the long‐standing Craig–Gordon (C–G) stable isotope model for evaporation under different conditions of air turbulence. The water lost through evaporation was automatically replenished so that a steady isotopic composition was reached, the value of which depended on the isotopic composition of the replenishment water and environmental parameters like temperature, relative humidity and isotopic composition of the atmospheric vapour, and the air turbulence index. The pans were exposed to artificial winds ranging from 0 to 2.5 m/s to change the air turbulence index, which governs the repartition between vapour transported by molecular diffusion and turbulent diffusion. Our data revealed that for wind speeds >0.5 m/s the isotopic composition of the evaporating water deviated from that predicted by the C–G model. This deviation was hypothetically attributed to microdroplets of liquid water removed by the wind without any isotopic fractionation. Isotope mass balance equations allowed us to quantify this water loss, which at wind speeds of ~2 m/s reached 10% of the total evaporation losses. An alternative kinetic evaporation model was proposed whereby the equilibrium layer and the atmospheric laminar layer above the evaporating water of the C–G model were destroyed by the wind and evaporated water molecules were directly injected into the atmosphere. In this model, the isotopic fractionations were due to the slower kinetics of hydrogen bond breakage between molecules in liquid water when heavy isotopes are involved. Accordingly, our data suggested that for isotope water balance studies where winds are frequently above 2 m/s, the C–G model may be inadequate without appropriate corrections for spray vaporization, or the introduction of appropriate kinetic isotope fractionation factors.

Li+ enrichment behavior in a sodium sulfate and low carbonate salt lake brine

The Laguo salt lake has both carbonate- and sodium-sulfate-type characteristics, and is famous for its resources, such as Li, B, K, Rb and Cs. Accordingly, it may be a potential source of lithium. The concentration of SO42− is known to influence the evaporation process of brine enriched in lithium. Isothermal evaporation experiments show that Li+ precipitates as Li2SO4·H2O, which is very unfavorable for lithium enrichment processes. Therefore, a series of temperature-variation experiments were conducted to effectively control the concentration of SO42− in the brine. The SO42− content was reduced by lowering the brine temperature, and thus the desulfurization target was achieved, and the precipitation of lithium was controlled. At the same time, the Mg/Li, which is known to affect Li extraction, was reduced. From the temperature-variation experiments, we successfully obtained a high-lithium brine can be obtained. Our results should provide a theoretical basis for the enrichment of lithium and the efficient utilization of resources in a composite salt lake brine.

Change in wetting characteristic of heated refrigerant in falling film evaporation

Abstract The wetting area plays a critical role in falling film evaporation. In the falling film evaporation process, the refrigerant is observed to shrink to a narrow rivulet when heated at a low temperature difference. In this study, a new model based on the stable rivulet and micro-layer evaporation theories was built to explain this phenomenon. A falling film evaporation experiment was conducted with R134a to examine the accuracy of the model. The calculation of the rivulet's width has good agreement but a little smaller than the experiments. Moreover, the theoretical analysis shows that the thermal-capillary effect will intensify the shrinkage of the rivulet, but the apparent contact angle change in the heated refrigerant is mainly caused by the evaporation of the micro-film. The decreased cross section of the rivulet will also attribute to the shrinkage. In conclusion, although the changed contact angle is small, the reduction of the wettability of refrigerant in falling film evaporation process cannot be neglected.

Uncertainty quantification of multispecies droplet evaporation models

Droplet evaporation is handled in general purpose simulations of dispersed flows with the standard semi-empirical zero-dimensional droplet evaporation model. It relies on a number of model parameters, which can be subject to uncertainty. To the knowledge of the authors, the present work is the first uncertainty quantification and sensitivity study of droplet evaporation models. We study the effect of the parameter uncertainties, by performing uncertainty analysis and Monte Carlo variance based sensitivity analysis. The important case of multispecies droplet evaporation is covered. The analysis of the distribution statistics allows us to identify the prevailing trends of the model output when subject to uncertain input parameters. The individual contributions of the model parameters to the variance are ranked in order of importance. Overall, the results provide useful guidelines for the use of the droplet evaporation model in calculations, under different conditions. The identification of evaporation regimes, where different sets of model parameters become important, is also valuable in aiding the design and execution of droplet evaporation experiments.

Capillary evaporation of water from aluminum high-temperature conductive microporous coating

Effective heat dissipation of a persistent surface heat flux is eagerly demanded in a multitude of applications. Such heat dissipation can be accomplished with thin-film evaporation, where metallic wicking structures are developed to effectively spread liquid over a surface to keep it wet during the heat transfer process. Capillary forces, permeability, and wicking thickness are the main properties that determine thin-film spreading and, thus, the evaporation performance. To achieve effective wicking, an aluminum High-Temperature Conductive Microporous Coating (Al-HTCMC) is used. The coating consists of aluminum particles that are brazed onto an aluminum surface. The coating, with different average particle diameters (dp = 11, 24, 66 and 114 µm), is applied over the aluminum plate (50.8 mm × 152.4 mm × 3.3 mm). Distilled water is selected as the working fluid and rate of rise experiments are performed to determine the effective meniscus radius and the permeability of unheated Al-HTCMC surfaces. Evaporation experiments at saturated conditions reveal that nearly zero superheat is needed for evaporation along a large vertical heater with area of 50.8 × 127 mm2. The temperature across the entire surface remains uniform until the dryout heat flux occurs, regardless of particle size at heat flux values up to 1.49 W/cm2 over the entire heater's area. A theoretical model is used to predict the dryout heat flux based on pressure drop through the microporous layer. Experimental results are in good agreement with the prediction model.

Impact of interlayer on moisture characteristics of reclaimed soil backfilled with Yellow River sediments

Underground coal mining causes land subsidence, and backfilling with Yellow River sediment is an effective reclamation technology to restore farmland in China. To date, two-layer soil reconstructed (TSR) for subsided land reclamation resulted in poor capacity to retain water. To solve this problem, multi-layered soil reconstructed (MSR), sandwiching soil interlayers between sediment, was developed as a new reclamation strategy with Yellow River sediment. In order to evaluate the impact of soil interlayer on moisture characteristics, laboratory experiments of infiltration and evaporation were conducted. Two control treatments (CK1, CK2) and four experimental treatments (T1-T4) were designed. CK1 was undamaged farmland, CK2 was conventional reconstructed two-layers soil profile (filled sediment with 40 cm soil cover). T1-T4 were multiple-layers soil profiles sandwiching different structures of soil interlayers between sediment layers. The results indicated that putting interlayers into sediment reduced water leakage and water evaporation, improved the water-holding capacity of conventional two-layer soil profiles. The total thickness of soil interlayers of 30 cm (T3 and T4) was better than 20 cm (T1 and T2) and two soil interlayers (T2) were better than one (T1) on water-holding capacity. Furthermore, the best reconstructed soil profile was T3, sandwiched two soil interlayer and the first thickness was 20 cm. This treatment had the greatest improvement on soil water holding capacity with an increase of 49.14% compared to CK2 at the end of the evaporation and was closest to CK1 (402.31 mm). This study provided experimental evidence that compares with TSR, MRS improved the moisture characteristics of backfilling with Yellow River sediment. Keywords: land reclamation, Mining subsidence, Yellow River sediment, multi-layered soil reconstructed, moisture characteristics DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20201301.5418 Citation: Wang X T, Hu Z Q, Liang Y S. Impact of interlayer on moisture characteristics of reclaimed soil backfilled with Yellow River sediments. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2020; 13(1): 153–159.

Permeability Evaluation of Clay-quartz Mixtures Based on Low-Field NMR and Fractal Analysis

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technology has been widely used for predicting permeability coefficients of porous medium, such as shales, sandstones, and coals. However, there have been limited studies on the prediction model of clay-quartz mixtures based on NMR technology. In this study, evaporation tests at 40 °C and NMR tests were simultaneously performed on eight clay-quartz mixtures with different mineral compositions. The results show that during the evaporation process, the decay rate of T2 total signal amplitudes was constant at first, and then decreased to 0 after a period of time. Based on the decay rate, the evaporation process was divided into two stages: the constant rate stage and the falling rate stage. Based on the two stages, the T2 cut-offs of eight mixtures were determined. The water in the mixture was divided into two parts by the T2 cut-off: the free water and the bound water. The prediction model of permeability coefficients of clay-quartz mixtures was established based on the Timur-Coates model. In order to simplify the process of predicting the permeability coefficient, fractal analysis was used to develop the relationship between the T2 cut-off and fractal dimension of the T2 spectrum of saturated mixture. A simplified method for predicting permeability coefficients of clay-quartz mixtures based on NMR technology without centrifugal and evaporation experiments was also proposed.

Pool evaporation: Experimental tests at medium-scale with gasoline

Pool evaporation is a major source of flammable vapour clouds. Predicting the evaporation rate of a liquid hydrocarbon pool is therefore a key issue of dispersion modelling for safety concerns. This paper presents small- and medium-scale experiments of pool evaporation carried out with liquid hydrocarbons (pentane, heptane), hydrocarbon “gasoline-like” mixtures and gasoline. Liquid mass loss was measured and the evaporation rate deduced with its evolution in time. Other observations are highlighted, regarding the evolution of liquid temperatures, mixture compositions, and scale effects like the influence of pool length on surface evaporation rate. Comparisons with well-known correlations are then shown. The authors finally suggest a new semi-empirical correlation with a set of parameters fitted on the performed experiments.

Experimental study of wet porous sand layer air-drying characteristics

An experimental study has been carried out to investigate the convective air-drying characteristics of a wet sand layer. The experimental setup allows dynamic measurements of both sand layer weight and temperature, with hot air flowing towards the sand layer surface to ensure a uniform drying of it. Experiments are conducted for a 4 mm thick sand layer for three air temperatures of 45, 60 and 75 °C. The lumped parameter method is used to analyze the sand layer heat transfer. The results show that the sand layer temperature continuously increases throughout the drying process, which can be divided into three stages, i.e. the initial rapid, intermediate slow, and final rapid increase stages. There is no constant temperature stage that is often observed in water film evaporation experiment. The drying process can also be divided into three stages according to the sand layer drying rate variation, they are the increasing, constant, and decreasing rate stages, which roughly correspond to the three temperature rise stages. The lumped parameter analysis result supports that the convective heat from the hot air is used mainly for the water evaporation.

Pore network model of evaporation in porous media with continuous and discontinuous corner films

During evaporation in porous media, two types of corner films are distinguished. A continuous corner film is connected to the bulk liquid, while a discontinuous one is not. To disclose their effects on evaporation in porous media, a pore network model with both continuous and discontinuous corner films is developed, which considers the capillary and viscous forces as well as the effects of corner films on the threshold pressures of pores. The capillary valve effect induced by the sudden geometrical expansion between the small and large pores is also taken into account in the model. The developed pore network model agrees well with the evaporation experiment with a quasi 2D micro model porous medium, in terms of not only the variation of the liquid saturation in each pore but also the variation of the total evaporation rate. The pore network models that neglect the corner films or the liquid viscosity are also compared with the experiment so as to shed light on the roles of the corner films. The continuous corner films, which contribute to sustain the high evaporation rate, can be interrupted to be the discontinuous ones not only by the gas invasion into pores but also by the capillary scissors effect due to the local convex topology of the solid matrix.

Experimental study on evaporation characteristics of single and multiple fuel droplets

In this work, evaporation experiments of multiple droplets are carried out in a stagnant hot atmospheric environment (573, 673 and 773 K) using high-speed backlit image technique. Three fuel droplets with nearly same initial diameter are suspended at intersections of two 0.1 mm quartz fibers. The normalized droplet spacing (s/d0) of three droplets is 2.25. The results show that the evaporation process of single, edge and central fuel droplet containing three stage: initial heating, unsteady evaporation and quasi-steady evaporation stage. Classical d2 law is still suitable for edge and central droplet at quasi-steady evaporation stage. The third stage of edge and central droplet accounts for more than 60% of droplet lifetime at low temperatures and about 50% at high temperatures. The evaporation rate constant of edge and central droplet increases and droplet lifetime decreases with increasing ambient temperature. The evaporation time of edge and central droplet at first and third stage is higher than single droplet, but lower than single droplet in the second stage. More importantly, the evaporation interactions between droplets is significant at low temperature. Compared with single droplet, the lifetime of central droplet is increased by 31.8%, 18.6% and 25.9%, respectively.

Anisotropy of unsaturated soil hydraulic properties of eroded Luvisol after conversion to hayfield comparing alfalfa and grass plots

The ploughing-induced compaction of the interface between topsoil and subsoil negatively affects the connectivity and continuity of the complex pore system through plough pans as artificial boundary resulting in water-logged conditions. The conversion of arable land into hayfield is an opportunity for breaking up plough pans and recovering pore networks in the long-term. The basic idea of the current study was to investigate the potential pore structure recovery effect by growing either deep-rooting alfalfa or shallow-rooting grass on former conventionally-tilled cropland. The alfalfa and grass plots located in moraine region in Northeast Germany on erosion-affected truncated Albic Luvisol, were sampled nine years after the conversion to hayfield. Undisturbed soil cores (300 cm3) were extracted in vertical (0°) and horizontal directions (90°) from the boundary between Ap and Al-Bt- horizons (about 25−35 cm soil depth). The soil water retention and the hydraulic conductivity under variable-saturated conditions were determined by using a combination of methods including suction plate, pressure chamber, double membrane through-flow, and evaporation experiments. The anisotropy ratio, AR, (horizontal versus vertical) of the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function, K(Se), was less pronounced for the soil at the alfalfa as compared to that of the grass plot, especially for wide coarse pores (wCP: >−60 hPa). The AR-ratio was differently depending on the pore size for soil from grass and alfalfa plot, and ranged between AR-values of 1 and 7. The pore size class-related matric flow potential, ϕ, derived from K(Se) function was used for comparing the volume fraction of pore size classes with a pore size-related fraction of the capillary potential. The volume fraction of the wide coarse pores was negatively related with ϕ (r2: 0.91). The smaller AR-values for the soil of the alfalfa plot suggest a tendency for better changing the platy structure into a prismatic-platy structure through the more intense rooting in the vertical direction than in the soil of the grass plot.

Exploring the impact of long-term evaporation on the relationship between capillary pressure and water saturation in unsaturated porous media

The focus of this work was on understanding the impact of evaporation on the capillary pressure-saturation (Pc-S) state of a porous medium. Evaporation is ubiquitous near the ground surface in the vadose zone, but little is known about how evaporation impacts the relationship between capillary pressure and saturation. The hypothesis driving the work was that the Pc-S relationship is the result of an equilibrium between evaporative water loss, capillary forces, and the upward flow of water to replenish evaporated water. Experiments were conducted using two different porous media, a coarse sand and a nylon membrane with a 20 μm pore size. Long-term evaporation experiments were conducted using different configurations to control evaporation within the media. Results found that increased accessibility to evaporation caused saturation in drainage Pc-S curves to decrease over time, causing the curves to become closer to imbibition Pc-S curves. In the membrane, the high external surface area to pore volume ratio caused changes in evaporative flux to produce rapid changes in the Pc-S state of the medium. One implication of the work is that results suggest that long-term drainage experiments in vented columns may not necessarily provide a meaningful measurement of static Pc-S curve, but rather may be impacted by evaporation.

Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the Drying of an Agricultural Soil

Due to climate change, soil desiccating became a serious concern in the agricultural area of Belgium. Knowing soil evaporation kinetic can help to elucidate and predict: the soil moisture regime, soil water retention and soil water content. Those parameters are vital for water use efficiency and sustainable agriculture. This research investigated the mechanism of soil evaporation using both laboratory experiment and numerical simulation. Soil samples (Luvisol) were collected from the agricultural field in Gembloux- Belgium, and tested in a small drying chamber. Sensors measured the chamber temperature and humidity, while digital camera monitored the soil surface throughout the experiment. HYPROP device recorded the water change, soil suction, and soil water retention curve. During three evaporation experiments, four periods were observed rather than three as commonly recorded in the theory of drying. The modelling considered thermo-hydro-mechanical framework for predicting the drying process of Luvisol. The model used the finite element code LAGAMINE created at the University of Liege. The software aims at assessing the mechanism of water transport between soil and atmosphere. The results of the simulation showed major domination of Darcean flow during desiccating, while some short vapour diffusion occurred only after the soil surface began to de-saturate.

The effect of the top soil layer on moisture and evaporation dynamics

AbstractUnderstanding the effect of the top soil layer on surface evaporation and water distribution is critical to modeling hydrological systems. However, the dependency of near‐surface soil moisture and fluxes on layering characteristics remains unclear. To address this uncertainty, we investigate how the arrangement of soil horizons affects the evaporation and soil moisture, specifically, the near‐surface soil moisture, through the combination of numerical simulations and evaporation experiments. The characteristics of fluxes and moisture from different soil profiles are then used to understand the soil layering conditions. Results show that the top soil layer can significantly affect the evolution of soil moisture profiles and evaporation dynamics, the extent of which depends on the layering sequence, thickness, and properties of each layer. The soil systems consisting of a thick coarse (C) layer overlying a fine (F) layer, or a very thin F layer overlying a C layer exhibit near‐surface moisture, temperature and fluxes nearly identical to that of a homogeneous C system; in these cases, a homogeneous C soil could be used to represent the above two layered systems. However, some soil profiles cannot be described by a single set of soil properties, nevertheless, they show distinct characteristics that can serve as indicators for soil layering conditions, e.g., “first slowly then rapidly” decreasing dynamics of near‐surface soil moisture. As some characteristics are not unique to layered soil, the combined information including the near‐surface soil moisture defined at different depths and evaporation behavior of an entire drying cycle can be used to better characterize the layering conditions.

The effect of solid‐phase composition on the drying behavior of Markermeer sediment

AbstractWe studied the drying behavior of slurries of Markermeer sediments in the Netherlands having different solid compositions. Natural processes such as sand–mud segregation and oxidation of organic matter were mimicked to analyze the effect of changes in sediment composition. Evaporation experiments were performed with soft slurry samples using the Hyprop setup. Soil water retention curves (SWRCs) and hydraulic conductivity curves (HCCs) were determined as a function of the water ratio (WR, defined as volume of water/volume of solids). The sediment remained close to saturation until the end of the experiments. The Atterberg limits reduced significantly after sediment treatment involving drying at 50 °C, rewetting, and chemical oxidation. Furthermore, the oxidized sediment lost capacity to retain water. The SWRCs of sandy and oxidized clays were steeper, and fine‐textured sediments showed large water ratios. At low matric suctions, the water retention capacity of the upper sediment samples containing more labile organic matter was larger than that of the sediment underneath. Clear correlations were found between van Genuchten parameters and the degree of degradation of the organic matter. The hydraulic conductivity of fine‐textured samples with less labile organics was larger. The results give insight into the drying behavior of Markermeer sediment, currently used to build wetlands.