Evanescent Electric Field Research Articles

Interfacial Chemical Composition and Molecular Order in Organic Photovoltaic Blend Thin Films Probed by Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy.

Organic electronic devices invariably involve transfer of charge carriers between the organic layer and at least one metal electrode, and they are sensitive to the local properties of the organic film at those interfaces. Here, we demonstrate a new approach for using an advanced technique called surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy (SERS) to quantitatively probe interfacial properties relevant to charge injection/extraction. Exploiting the evanescent electric field generated by a ∼7 nm thick layer of evaporated silver, Raman scattering from nearby molecules is enhanced by factors of 10-1000× and limited by a distance dependence with a measured decay length of only 7.6 nm. When applied to the study of an all-polymer 1:1 blend of P3HT and F8TBT used in organic solar cells, we find that the as-cast film is morphologically suited to charge extraction in inverted devices, with a top (anode) interface very rich in hole-transporting P3HT (74.5%) and a bottom (cathode) interface slightly rich in electron-transporting F8TBT (55%). While conventional, uninverted P3HT:F8TBT devices are reported to perform poorly compared to inverted devices, their efficiency can be improved by thermal annealing but only after evaporation of a metallic top electrode. This is explained by changes in composition at the top interface: annealing prior to silver evaporation leads to a greater P3HT concentration at the top interface to 83.3%, exaggerating the original distribution that favored inverted devices, while postevaporation annealing increases the concentration of F8TBT at the top interface to 34.8%, aiding the extraction of electrons in a conventional device. By nondestructively probing buried interfaces, SERS is a powerful tool for understanding the performance of organic electronic devices.

Label-free analysis of GPCR-stimulation: The critical impact of cell adhesion

Label-free cell-based assays have been attracting growing attention in drug research. Optical approaches based on evanescent electric fields (e.g. EPIC, RWG/DMR, SPR) and electrochemical impedance analysis (ECIS, xCELLigence) are by far the most widespread techniques for such purposes. We compared three label-free approaches (ECIS, RWG/DMR and SPR) with respect to the activation of the human histamine H1 receptor (H1R) expressed by U-373 MG glioblastoma and genetically engineered HEK 293T cells. HEK 293T cells were either expressing the hH1R alone or in combination with the adhesion protein hMSR1. The β2-adrenergic receptor (β2-AR) expressed by bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC) served as a second cell model. Reduced cell adhesion to the surface of the sensing devices affected both, the optical and the impedance-based readout, but became much more obvious in case of RWG- or SPR-based assays. By contrast, the co-expression of hH1R and hMSR1 in HEK 293T cells strongly enhanced the signal compared to hH1R expression alone. As the sensitivity of the optical readouts is confined to a distance of 100–200nm from the surface, depending on the wavelength of the incident light, this observation is in accordance with tighter adhesion of the co-transfectants, inducing a shorter distance between the cell membrane and the substrate. Combining ECIS and SPR, allowing for simultaneous registration of both signals for a single cell population, provided a direct correlation of both readouts, when H1R or β2-AR stimulation was investigated for the same cell populations. Cell adhesion was found to have a critical impact on the results of label-free cell monitoring, in particular when techniques based on evanescent electric fields are applied.

III-V nitrides and performance of graphene on copper plasmonic biosensor

In the present study, the influence of iii-v nitrides as well as Ge and Si on the sensitivity and performance of a graphene protected copper plasmonic biosensor has been investigated. These semiconductors have been used between copper (Cu) and graphene layers on a SF 10 glass prism. The sensitivity and performance of the biosensor has been computed for with and without semiconductors. III-V nitrides demonstrated high sensitivity and high figure of merit (FOM) in comparison to Si and Ge due to their superior electronic and optical properties. The enhancement of evanescent electric field due to Si, Ge, AlN, GaN and InN have been computed and found highest enhancement for InN. This happens due to high refractive index of InN than other semiconductors. Analysis shows that for a high sensitive imaging biosensor the required optimal thickness of copper, InN and graphene are respectively 32 nm, 13 nm and 0.34 nm for light of wavelength λ = 633 nm (red HeNe laser). This study suggests that InN would be a better choice for fabrication of new imaging plasmonic biosensors for chemical and biological sensing.

Transition from near-field thermal radiation to phonon heat conduction at sub-nanometre gaps.

When the separation of two surfaces approaches sub-nanometre scale, the boundary between the two most fundamental heat transfer modes, heat conduction by phonons and radiation by photons, is blurred. Here we develop an atomistic framework based on microscopic Maxwell's equations and lattice dynamics to describe the convergence of these heat transfer modes and the transition from one to the other. For gaps >1 nm, the predicted conductance values are in excellent agreement with the continuum theory of fluctuating electrodynamics. However, for sub-nanometre gaps we find the conductance is enhanced up to four times compared with the continuum approach, while avoiding its prediction of divergent conductance at contact. Furthermore, low-frequency acoustic phonons tunnel through the vacuum gap by coupling to evanescent electric fields, providing additional channels for energy transfer and leading to the observed enhancement. When the two surfaces are in or near contact, acoustic phonons become dominant heat carriers.

Comparative theoretical analysis between parallel and perpendicular geometries for 2D particle patterning in photovoltaic ferroelectric substrates

This paper describes the dielectrophoretic potential created by the evanescent electric field acting on a particle near a photovoltaic crystal surface depending on the crystal cut. This electric field is obtained from the steady state solution of the Kukhtarev equations for the photovoltaic effect, where the diffusion term has been disregarded. First, the space charge field generated by a small, square, light spot where d ≪ l (being d a side of the square and l the crystal thickness) is studied. The surface charge density generated in both geometries is calculated and compared as their relation determines the different properties of the dielectrophoretic potential for both cuts. The shape of the dielectrophoretic potential is obtained and compared for several distances to the sample. Afterwards other light patterns are studied by the superposition of square spots, and the resulting trapping profiles are analysed. Finally the surface charge densities and trapping profiles for different d/l relations are studied.

Coherent optical non-reciprocity in axisymmetric resonators.

We describe an approach to optical non-reciprocity that exploits the local helicity of evanescent electric fields in axisymmetric resonators. By interfacing an optical cavity to helicity-sensitive transitions, such as Zeeman levels in a quantum dot, light transmission through a waveguide becomes direction-dependent when the state degeneracy is lifted. Using a linearized quantum master equation, we analyze the configurations that exhibit non-reciprocity, and we show that reasonable parameters from existing cavity QED experiments are sufficient to demonstrate a coherent non-reciprocal optical isolator operating at the level of a single photon.

Microwave sensing of nanostructured semiconductor surfaces

In this paper, we present a method for the characterization of the lifetime of photoinduced carriers in semiconductor nanostructures based on the interaction of the photocarriers with the evanescent electric field of a microwave, propagating in a coplanar waveguide. The limited spatial extension of the evanescent field ensures that only a defined portion of material is analyzed. The nanostructures are illuminated by pulses of ultraviolet light which ensures that absorption and photogeneration occur mainly within the semiconductor nanostructure. Absorption due to photogenerated carriers produces weak variations of the power of microwaves travelling along the coplanar structure. Time variations of transmitted power through the waveguide thus follow the time variations of photogenerated charges. The technique is completely contactless, and ensures fast and non-destructive test capability. The measurement was applied for monitoring of lifetime of photogenerated carriers in macroporous silicon, proving to be strongly effective.

Waveguide structures for efficient evanescent field coupling to zero mode waveguides

The use of waveguide structures is examined to improve the efficiency of evanescent field coupling into zero-mode waveguides. Model calculations show that waveguide excitation using diffractive structures, increases the magnitude of the evanescent electric field by an order of magnitude compared to far field excitation of the evanescent field. A more efficient excitation of fluorescent markers used in e.g. sequencing instrumentation ultimately enables real-time single molecule detection using laser systems with moderate output power.

Label-free photonic biosensors fabricated with low-loss hydrogenated amorphous silicon resonators

The precise detection of chemicals and biomolecules is of great interest in the areas of biotechnology and medical diagnostics. Thus, there is a need for highly sensitive, small area, and low-cost sensors. We fabricated and optically characterized hydrogenated amorphous silicon photonic resonators for label-free lab-on-chip biosensors. The sensing was performed with small-footprint microdisk and microring resonators that detect a refractive-index change via the evanescent electric field. Homogeneous sensing with NaCl and surface-sensing experiments with immobilized bovine serum albumin (BSA) were carried out. A sensitivity as high as 460 nm/RIU was measured for NaCl dissolved in deionized water for the disk, whereas about 50 nm/RIU was determined for the ring resonator. The intrinsic limits of detection were calculated to be 3.3×10 −4 and 3.2×10 −3 at 1550-nm wavelength. We measured the binding of BSA to functionalized ring resonators and found that molecular masses can be detected down to the clinically relevant femtogram regime. The detection and quantification of related analytes with hydrogenated amorphous silicon photonic sensors can be used in medical healthcare diagnostics like point-of-care-testing and biotechnological screening.

Adsorption of the Cationic Surfactant Benzyldimethylhexadecylammonium Chloride at the Silica–Water Interface and Metal Salt Effects on the Adsorption Kinetics

The adsorption of the cationic surfactant benzyldimethylhexadecylammonium (BDMHA(+)) chloride has been studied at the hydrophilic silica-water interface by Raman spectroscopy in total internal reflection geometry (TIR Raman). This Raman spectroscopic technique takes advantage of an evanescent electric field that is generated at the silica-water interface in TIR mode with specific probing depth. The present study demonstrates the capabilities of the TIR Raman sampling configuration to provide structural information and simultaneously serve as an experimental platform for studying thermodynamic and kinetic properties of BDMHA(+)Cl(-) at the silica-water interface at neutral pH and compare its adsorption behavior with the modified adsorption properties in the presence of four different concentrations of a divalent metal salt. Spectral analysis of the Raman scattering intensities as a function of time and concentration provided the input data for evaluating adsorption properties of the surfactant in the absence and presence of the metal salt additive. Addition of the magnesium metal salt lowered the cmc, altered the surface excess of the surfactant, and increased the Langmuir adsorption constants, as well as the magnitude of the free energy of adsorption, and adsorption kinetics, proportional to the concentrations of the metal salt. Adsorption isotherms based on a modified Langmuir adsorption model were established for five systems: the pure surfactant in aqueous solution, and the surfactant in the presence of 5, 10, 50, and 100 mM of magnesium chloride. The metal salt did not enhance surfactant adsorption at very low surfactant concentrations below 5 μM, where adsorption occurs by electrostatic attraction; the divalent metal salt, however, favorably influenced the adsorption behavior in the aggregate formation region by reducing the electrostatic repulsion between the polar surfactant head groups, and enhancing the hydrophobic effect between the hydrophobic surfactant alkyl chains and the polar water molecules.

Resonant transmission through a multiple periodic scattering system

We investigate the propagation and transmission of electromagnetic (EM) waves in the subwavelength regime when a multiple periodic scattering system (MPSS) is illuminated by a monochromatic plane wave. This system has a cascaded structure with square hole arrays periodically perforated on a metal slab with arbitrary slab thickness and arbitrary air-gap. The framework of this paper is based on a modal expansion theory, in which the EM fields in pure vacuum are expanded in terms of plane waves, while those in the holes of the slab are expressed in terms of waveguide modes. The boundary conditions for the EM waves lead to a system of equations whose solution can be obtained quasianalytically in a monomodal approximation method. We study the transmission spectrum and field distribution in the MPSS, varying geometrical parameters such as the air-gap and/or number N of slabs in the context of symmetrical and asymmetrical geometries. We find that an MPSS with N ≥ 2 provides discrete transmission windows whose resonance order linearly increases against N and the associated resonance wavelengths are confined to a specific finite band for large N. The EM fields at the resonance states are quite uniquely distributed in the MPSS, depending not only on the resonance wavelength, but also either on even N or on odd N. We also demonstrate that the transmission of the EM energy is strongly boosted by the evanescent electric fields mirror-symmetrically distributed in the air-gaps of the MPSS.

Coupling modes of gold trimer superstructures

An experimental and theoretical examination of the coupling modes within superstructures of gold nanorod trimers is presented. The experimentally determined spectrum of the nanorod trimers is reported and the modes are elucidated using an electrostatic eigenmode method based on the coupling of evanescent electric fields. The theory is able to reproduce the experimental spectrum well, and the nature of the modes and interactions are discussed.

Direct probing of evanescent field for characterization of porous terahertz fibers

We develop a technique based on a micromachined photoconductive probe-tip to characterize a terahertz (THz) porous fiber. Losses less than 0.08 cm−1 are measured in the frequency range from 0.2 to 0.35 THz, with the minimum of 0.003 cm−1 at 0.24 THz. Normalized group velocity greater than 0.8, which corresponds to dispersion values in between −1.3 and −0.5 ps/m/μm for 0.2<f<0.35 THz are obtained. Moreover, we directly measure the evanescent electric field as a function of frequency. Good agreement between the measured curves and expected theoretical values indicates the low invasiveness of the applied probe-tip.

Evanescent coupling between a Raman-active molecule and surface plasmons in ensembles of metallic nanoparticles

A theory of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is developed based on the coupling between an ensemble of nanoparticles supporting localized surface-plasmon resonances (LSPRs) and a Raman-active molecule. The molecule is modeled by a dielectric particle supporting many different modes that represent its response to an applied electric field. It is shown that the modes can be modified to include the effects of the vibrational resonances of the molecule that lead to Raman scattering and the associated Stokes and anti-Stokes frequency shifts. The same theory can describe the LSPR in an ensemble of metallic nanoparticles of arbitrary shape which leads to a description of the coupling of the evanescent electric fields between the Raman-active molecule and the surface plasmons. The theory predicts the magnitudes of the SERS observed experimentally and can model many of the known Raman effects associated with the LSPR resonances in nanoparticles, including the dependence of the enhancement on the shape and geometry of the nanoparticles, and the effects of the polarization of the incident light. An analytical expression is derived for the enhancement associated with a nanoparticle ensemble that exhibits two degenerate modes and it includes an interference effect arising from the coupling between the modes and the Raman scattering from the molecule.

Generating single-mode behavior in fiber-coupled optical cavities

We propose to turn two resonant distant cavities effectively into one by coupling them via an optical fiber which is coated with two-level atoms [Franson et al., Phys. Rev. A 70, 062302 (2004)]. The purpose of the atoms is to destructively measure the evanescent electric field of the fiber on a time scale which is long compared to the time it takes a photon to travel from one cavity to the other. Moreover, the boundary conditions imposed by the setup should support a small range of standing waves inside the fiber, including one at the frequency of the cavities. In this way, the fiber provides an additional decay channel for one common cavity field mode but not for the other. If the corresponding decay rate is sufficiently large, this mode decouples effectively from the system dynamics. A single non-local resonator mode is created.

Acoustic Phonon Tunneling and Heat Transport due to Evanescent Electric Fields

The authors describe how acoustic phonons can directly tunnel through vacuum and, therefore, transmit energy and conduct heat between bodies that are separated by a vacuum gap. This effect is enabled by introducing a coupling mechanism, such as piezoelectricity, that strongly couples electric field and lattice deformation. The electric field leaks into the vacuum as an evanescent field, which leads to finite solid-vacuum-solid transmission probability. Because of strong resonances in the system, some phonons can go through the vacuum gap with (or close to) unity transmission, which leads to significant thermal conductance and heat flux.

Simple Model for the Hybridization of Surface Plasmon Resonances in Metallic Nanoparticles

An "electrostatic" eigenmode method based on the coupling of evanescent electric fields is presented for modeling the hybridization of localized surface plasmon resonances in metallic nanoparticles of arbitrary shape. The method yields simple analytical expressions for the hybridized energies and excitation amplitudes of nanoparticle ensembles. Because of its ease of applicability and simple conceptual basis, we anticipate that the method will be of value in understanding and predicting the effects of interacting plasmonic nanoparticles.

A detection instrument for enhanced-fluorescence and label-free imaging on photonic crystal surfaces

We report on the design and demonstration of an optical imaging system capable of exciting surface-bound fluorophores within the resonant evanescent electric field of a photonic crystal surface and gathering fluorescence emission that is directed toward the imaging objective by the photonic crystal. The system also has the ability to quantify shifts in the local resonance angle induced by the adsorption of biomolecules on the photonic crystal surface for label-free biomolecular imaging. With these two capabilities combined within a single detection system, we demonstrate label-free images self-registered to enhanced fluorescence images with 328x more sensitive fluorescence detection relative to a glass surface. This technique is applied to a DNA microarray where label-free quantification of immobilized capture DNA enables improved quality control and subsequent enhanced fluorescence detection of dye-tagged hybridized DNA yields 3x more genes to be detected versus commercially available microarray substrates.

A semiconductor laser device for the generation of surface-plasmons upon electrical injection

Surface plasmons are electromagnetic waves originating from electrons and light oscillations at metallic surfaces. Since freely propagating light cannot be coupled directly into surface-plasmon modes, a compact, semiconductor electrical device capable of generating SPs on the device top metallic surface would represent an advantage: not only SP manipulation would become easier, but Au-metalized surfaces can be easily functionalized for applications. Here, we report a demonstration of such a device. The direct proof of surface-plasmon generation is obtained with apertureless near-field scanning optical microscopy, which detects the presence of an intense, evanescent electric field above the device metallic surface upon electrical injection.

Designing plasmonic systems using optical coupling between nanoparticles

A theory of the coupling of evanescent optical fields between metallic nanoparticles is developed to provide a basis for designing plasmonic systems. The interaction between metallic nanoparticles is investigated using an electrostatic approximation that describes the localized surface-plasmon resonances for particles much smaller than the wavelength of the exciting radiation. A coupling coefficient is derived relating the surface charge on one particle to the induced surface dipoles on another. The effect of dipole radiation damping is included to model the radiation broadening of the plasmon resonances. The theory enables an analysis of the key factors that control the coupling and that lead to resonances of the particle system. It is shown that the coupling between a simple pair of particles, in the form of stripes, leads to frequency splitting and the formation of a dark mode. The dark mode is associated with little scattering of light but large evanescent electric fields. It is shown that the dark mode has low radiation damping compared to an associated bright mode. The theory can be applied to an arbitrary number of interacting particles, allowing them to be configured to achieve the desired properties of the plasmonic system.