European Urban Areas Research Articles

Research Design and Approach

The following research questions are going to be answered to reveal the characteristics of TiB and their present state of sustainability and the potential for future sustainability to inform regional planning and design: What spatial structures characterise dispersed urban areas in Europe? Which morphological and functional structures of dispersed urban areas offer the potential for more sustainable development? If so, how can this potential be mapped and measured to inform regional planning and design? Are there similarities and dissimilarities concerning potentials of dispersed urban areas in different locations, planning cultures, topographies and histories? The core of the thesis at hand are four separate journal papers, see Figure 2.1. Therefore, this section presents the general approach of this research to bind the papers and their results together to provide the reader with a coherent story. Chapters three to six are predominantly composed of already published or accepted double-blind peer-reviewed journal papers. In all those papers, the specific research questions and methods and data used are explained. An atlas, complementing each chapter, presents additional maps, drawings and photos as well as statistical and analytical material and their interpretations. They were not used in the papers as such, but complete the comparative aspect of the research. Chapter 3 defines and characterises territories-in-between and thereby, what constitutes a case for the cross-case comparison. Chapters 4, 5 and 6 present methods to assess the potential and possibilities for sustainable development in territories-in-between. Chapter 7 present a meta-analysis of the earlier chapter to identify similarities among cases and outliers to be able to generalise findings. Chapter 8 summarises the key findings of the research and provide, recommendations for planning practice and research. A cross-case comparison as over aching approach was chosen in order to avoid what Geneletti et al. ( 2017) described as a setback of most studies dealing with sustainable development in peripheries, namely that they are often context-specific and solution-oriented and that it stays unclear whether the general ideas can be transferred to other geographical contexts. Therefore, after briefly introducing all chapters of the dissertation, section 2.6.1 provides a more detailed explanation of the advantages and disadvantages of a cross-case comparison. It also presents several cross-cutting methodological considerations, like the selection of the cases, data availability, reliability and limitations as well as general considerations on transferability. Section 2.7 introduces the atlas of territories-in-between. The aim of the atlas, which is spread out between the article based chapters of the dissertation, is to provide additional information and material, which was not included in the original papers but which either provides maps for those cases the papers did not focus on, or photographic material in order to support the quantitative data with qualitative information.

Integrating Modes of Transport in a Dynamic Modelling Approach to Evaluate Population Exposure to Ambient NO2 and PM2.5 Pollution in Urban Areas.

To evaluate the effectiveness of alternative policies and measures to reduce air pollution effects on urban citizen’s health, population exposure assessments are needed. Due to road traffic emissions being a major source of emissions and exposure in European cities, it is necessary to account for differentiated transport environments in population dynamics for exposure studies. In this study, we applied a modelling system to evaluate population exposure in the urban area of Hamburg in 2016. The modeling system consists of an urban-scale chemistry transport model to account for ambient air pollutant concentrations and a dynamic time-microenvironment-activity (TMA) approach, which accounts for population dynamics in different environments as well as for infiltration of outdoor to indoor air pollution. We integrated different modes of transport in the TMA approach to improve population exposure assessments in transport environments. The newly developed approach reports 12% more total exposure to NO2 and 19% more to PM2.5 compared with exposure estimates based on residential addresses. During the time people spend in different transport environments, the in-car environment contributes with 40% and 33% to the annual sum of exposure to NO2 and PM2.5, in the walking environment with 26% and 30%, in the cycling environment with 15% and 17% and other environments (buses, subway, suburban, and regional trains) with less than 10% respectively. The relative contribution of road traffic emissions to population exposure is highest in the in-car environment (57% for NO2 and 15% for PM2.5). Results for population-weighted exposure revealed exposure to PM2.5 concentrations above the WHO AQG limit value in the cycling environment. Uncertainties for the exposure contributions arising from emissions and infiltration from outdoor to indoor pollutant concentrations range from −12% to +7% for NO2 and PM2.5. The developed “dynamic transport approach” is integrated in a computationally efficient exposure model, which is generally applicable in European urban areas. The presented methodology is promoted for use in urban mobility planning, e.g., to investigate on policy-driven changes in modal split and their combined effect on emissions, population activity and population exposure.

On the Transnational Destruction of Cities: What Japan and the United States Learned from the Bombing of Britain and Germany in the Second World War*

Abstract How did it become ‘normal’ to bomb civilians? Focusing on the aerial bombardment of China, Germany, Britain, and Japan in 1937-45, this essay spotlights the role of transnational learning in the construction and destruction of ‘home fronts’. Belligerents vigorously studied each other's strategies to destroy the enemy's cities and ‘morale’, while investigating efforts to defend one's own home front by means of ‘civilian defence’. The inclusion of Japan, as bomber and bombed, contributes to a more global, connected history of the Second World War. Japan's sustained bombardment of Chinese cities not only reflected emerging transnational ideas of strategic bombing and total war, but also imparted new ‘lessons’ to Western air forces. Moreover, the devastating US firebombing of Japanese cities in 1945 challenges widely accepted judgments that bombing was generally ineffective, serving only to stiffen civilian morale. Why Japanese cities were bombed, and how they were bombed, was not an exceptional story, but was intimately connected to what the Allies had learned from bombing European urban areas.

Effect of the recent economic crisis on socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in nine urban areas in Europe

ObjectiveTo analyse socioeconomic inequalities in all-cause mortality among men and women in nine European urban areas during the recent economic crisis, and to compare the results to those from two periods before the crisis. MethodThis is an ecological study of trends based on three time periods (2000-2003, 2004-2008 and 2009-2014). The units of analysis were the small areas of nine European urban areas. We used a composite deprivation index as a socioeconomic indicator, along with other single indicators. As a mortality indicator, we used the smoothed standardized mortality ratio, calculated using the hierarchical Bayesian model proposed by Besag, York and Mollié. To analyse the evolution of socioeconomic inequalities, we fitted an ecological regression model that included the socioeconomic indicator, the period of time, and the interaction between these terms. ResultsWe observed significant inequalities in mortality among men for almost all the socioeconomic indicators, periods, and urban areas studied. However, no significant changes occurred during the period of the economic crisis. While inequalities among women were less common, there was a statistically significant increase in inequality during the crisis period in terms of unemployment and the deprivation index in Prague and Stockholm, respectively. ConclusionsFuture analyses should also consider time-lag in the effect of crises on mortality and specific causes of death, and differential effects between genders.

Neighbourhood drivability: environmental and individual characteristics associated with car use across Europe

BackgroundCar driving is a form of passive transportation associated with higher sedentary behaviour, which is associated with morbidity. The decision to drive a car is likely to be influenced by the ‘drivability’ of the built environment, but there is lack of scientific evidence regarding the relative contribution of environmental characteristics of car driving in Europe, compared to individual characteristics. This study aimed to determine which neighbourhood- and individual-level characteristics were associated with car driving in adults of five urban areas across Europe. Second, the study aimed to determine the percentage of variance in car driving explained by individual- and neighbourhood-level characteristics.MethodsNeighbourhood environment characteristics potentially related to car use were identified from the literature. These characteristics were subsequently assessed using a Google Street View audit and available GIS databases, in 59 administrative residential neighbourhoods in five European urban areas. Car driving (min/week) and individual level characteristics were self-reported by study participants (analytic sample n = 4258). We used linear multilevel regression analyses to assess cross-sectional associations of individual and neighbourhood-level characteristics with weekly minutes of car driving, and assessed explained variance at each level and for the total model.ResultsHigher residential density (β:-2.61, 95%CI: − 4.99; -0.22) and higher land-use mix (β:-3.73, 95%CI: − 5.61; -1.86) were significantly associated with fewer weekly minutes of car driving. At the individual level, higher age (β: 1.47, 95%CI: 0.60; 2.33), male sex (β: 43.2, 95%CI:24.7; 61.7), being employed (β:80.1, 95%CI: 53.6; 106.5) and ≥ 3 person household composition (β: 47.4, 95%CI: 20.6; 74.2) were associated with higher weekly minutes of car driving. Individual and neighbourhood characteristics contributed about equally to explained variance in minutes of weekly car driving, with 2 and 3% respectively, but total explained variance remained low.ConclusionsResidential density and land-use mix were neighbourhood characteristics consistently associated with minutes of weekly car driving, besides age, sex, employment and household composition. Although total explained variance was low, both individual- and neighbourhood-level characteristics were similarly important in their associations with car use in five European urban areas. This study suggests that more, higher quality, and longitudinal data are needed to increase our understanding of car use and its effects on determinants of health.

Local climate zones classification method from Copernicus land monitoring service datasets: An ArcGIS-based toolbox

Local Climate Zones (LCZ) have become a worldwide standard for identifying land cover classes, according to their climate-relevant morphological parameters. The LCZ's are mostly used to evaluate urban climate performance, particularly the relationship between the urban heat island effect (UHI) and the characteristics of the built-up environment. The World Urban Database and Access Portal Tools (WUDAPT) has provided a supervised LCZ classification method based only on moderate resolution free satellite imagery, mostly Landsat 7 or 8 (30 m pixel size, in the visible spectrum brands); however, its’ results are less accurate for European cities. Conversely, alternative geographic information system (GIS)-based methods developed so far require information that is hardly available to all, such as building footprints or heights. Here, the ArcGIS based LCZ from Copernicus Toolbox (LCZC) provides an alternative classification method that uses only freely accessible information from the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service (CLMS), being possible to replicate it in 800 European urban locations. The method combines Urban Atlas (UA) and Corine Land Cover (CLC) with Tree Cover Density, Dominant Leaf Type and Grassland information, to produce a higher-resolution baseline shapefile that is classified according to each feature's dominant characteristics. The LCZC toolbox output is a LCZ raster map. It has been validated in five European cities: Athens, Barcelona, Lisbon, Marseille, and Naples.•The LCZC toolbox provides an alternative LCZ GIS-based classification, based on freely accessible CLMS datasets.•The use of CLMS shapefile higher-resolution inputs, particularly the UA and CLC datasets, ensures an output LCZ map that has greater detail and higher accuracy.•The availability of CLMS information in 800 European urban areas guarantees that the method can be replicated in those locations.

Modelling the future low-carbon energy systems - case study of Greater Copenhagen, Denmark

In the light of insufficient climate policy on the global and national scale, ambitious cities are frontrunners of the climate action. Among them is Copenhagen, Denmark, aiming to achieve a CO2-neutral energy system in 2025. Reaching this goal requires, among other, changes in energy generation portfolio, which can be assessed using energy systems modelling. The aim of this study is to construct and evaluate four scenarios for sustainable electricity and heat supply of Greater Copenhagen and the new development project Nordhavn, deciding on the least expensive and least polluting option from a socio-economic perspective. Using the energy system model Balmorel, the energy scenarios are assessed and compared focusing on heat and electricity price and CO2 emissions. Sensitivity analyses are conducted considering changes in coefficient of performance (COP) of heat pumps and discount rate. The results show that from the socio-economic perspective, expanding district heating to Nordhavn is a promising solution. In case the heating demand in the Nordhavn area is supplied by a local source, power-to-heat technologies are chosen. Despite the narrow geographical focus, the challenges discussed in this paper and the method developed are relevant for other urban areas in Europe that aspire to have sustainable energy systems.

Effects of soiling and weathering on the albedo of building envelope materials: Lessons learned from natural exposure in two European cities and tuning of a laboratory simulation practice

Chemical and physical stress, weathering, organic and inorganic matter deposition, and microbial growth over time, or “aging”, affect the optical-radiative performance of building envelope materials. Natural exposure helps to quantify these effects, but it usually requires several years. Further, the contribution of the different degradation agents cannot be isolated, and results from different campaigns cannot be easily compared because of the variability in the boundary conditions producing aging. Here we present an adaptation of the protocol implemented by ASTM as D7897-18 “Standard Practice for Laboratory Soiling and Weathering of Roofing Materials to Simulate Effects of Natural Exposure on Solar Reflectance and Thermal Emittance”. The aim is to reproduce in the laboratory the changes in albedo (solar reflectance) and thermal emittance experienced by building envelope materials in European urban areas rather than in the United States. We tuned the spraying duration and weathering cycles, and we compared the UV–vis–NIR reflectances of naturally-aged specimens (48 months in Rome and Milan) of roofing and wall finish materials to those exposed to laboratory weathering and soiling. Excluding those materials that show early physical-chemical degradation, the mean absolute deviation between natural and laboratory exposure of roofing products is equal to 0.027 in albedo. This is a lower value than the differences between two natural exposure campaigns at the same site. We clearly defined the limits of application of the protocol, providing an appraisal of the repeatability of natural aging. Moreover, we identified possible improvements in the methodology to conduct both natural and laboratory exposure.

Urban greenspace and the indoor environment: Pathways to health via indoor particulate matter, noise, and road noise annoyance

Background/AimThe exposome includes urban greenspace, which may affect health via a complex set of pathways, including reducing exposure to particulate matter (PM) and noise. We assessed these pathways using indoor exposure monitoring data from the HEALS study in four European urban areas (Edinburgh, UK; Utrecht, Netherlands; Athens and Thessaloniki, Greece). MethodsWe quantified three metrics of residential greenspace at 50 m and 100 m buffers: Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), annual tree cover density, and surrounding green land use. NDVI values were generated for both summer and the season during which the monitoring took place. Indoor PM2.5 and noise levels were measured by Dylos and Netatmo sensors, respectively, and subjective noise annoyance was collected by questionnaire on an 11-point scale. We used random-effects generalised least squares regression models to assess associations between greenspace and indoor PM2.5 and noise, and an ordinal logistic regression to model the relationship between greenspace and road noise annoyance. ResultsWe identified a significant inverse relationship between summer NDVI and indoor PM2.5 (−1.27 μg/m3 per 0.1 unit increase [95% CI -2.38 to −0.15]) using a 100 m residential buffer. Reduced (i.e., <1.0) odds ratios (OR) of road noise annoyance were associated with increasing summer (OR = 0.55 [0.31 to 0.98]) and season-specific (OR = 0.55 [0.32 to 0.94]) NDVI levels, and tree cover density (OR = 0.54 [0.31 to 0.93] per 10 percentage point increase), also at a 100 m buffer. In contrast to these findings, we did not identify any significant associations between greenspace and indoor noise in fully adjusted models. ConclusionsWe identified reduced indoor levels of PM2.5 and noise annoyance, but not overall noise, with increasing outdoor levels of certain greenspace indicators. To corroborate our findings, future research should examine the effect of enhanced temporal resolution of greenspace metrics during different seasons, characterise the configuration and composition of green areas, and explore mechanisms through mediation modelling.

Air pollution spatial variability in relation to socioeconomic indicators in nine European metropolitan areas.

OPS 04: Environmental justice, Room 117, Floor 1, August 27, 2019, 1:30 PM - 3:00 PM Aim: A limited number of studies have addressed environmental inequality in relation to air pollution, using various study designs and methodologies and often reaching contradictory results. We conducted an ecological study to investigate the spatial association between nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as a surrogate for traffic related air pollution, and ten socioeconomic status indicators (SES). Methods: Following a standardized multi-city process within the European project EURO-HEALTHY we collected SES data at local administrative unit level in nine European Metropolitan Areas for the period 2001-14: Athens, Greece; Barcelona, Spain; Berlin-Brandenburg, Germany; Brussels, Belgium; Lisbon, Portugal; London, UK; Paris, France; Stockholm, Sweden and Turin, Italy. We applied mixed models for the associations under investigation with random intercepts per MA, also accounting for the spatial correlation. Results: The stronger associations were observed between NO2 levels and population density, population born outside the European Union (EU28), total crimes per 100,000 inhabitants and unemployment rate that displayed a highly statistically significant trend of rising concentrations with increasing levels of these indicators. Specifically, the highest vs the lowest quartile of each of the above indicators was associated with 48.7% (95% confidence interval (CI): 42.9%, 54.8%), 30.9% (95%CI: 22.1%, 40.2%), 19.8% (95%CI: 13.4%, 26.6%) and 15.8% (95%CI: 9.9%, 22.1%) increase in NO2 respectively. Conclusions: Higher pollution levels in areas with higher percentages of people born outside EU28, crime or unemployment rates indicate that worse air quality is typically encountered in deprived European urban areas. The association with population density most probably reflects the higher volume of vehicular traffic, which is the main source of NO2 in urban areas. Policy makers should consider spatial environmental inequalities to better inform actions aiming to lower urban air pollution levels that will subsequently lead to improved quality of life, public health and health equity across the population.

Socioeconomic inequalities in suicide mortality in European urban areas before and during the economic recession.

Few studies have assessed the impact of the financial crisis on inequalities in suicide mortality in European urban areas. The objective of the study was to analyse the trend in area socioeconomic inequalities in suicide mortality in nine European urban areas before and after the beginning of the financial crisis. This ecological study of trends was based on three periods, two before the economic crisis (2000-2003, 2004-2008) and one during the crisis (2009-2014). The units of analysis were the small areas of nine European cities or metropolitan areas, with a median population ranging from 271 (Turin) to 193 630 (Berlin). For each small area and sex, we analysed smoothed standardized mortality ratios of suicide mortality and their relationship with a socioeconomic deprivation index using a hierarchical Bayesian model. Among men, the relative risk (RR) comparing suicide mortality of the 95th percentile value of socioeconomic deprivation (severe deprivation) to its 5th percentile value (low deprivation) were higher than 1 in Stockholm and Lisbon in the three periods. In Barcelona, the RR was 2.06 (95% credible interval: 1.24-3.21) in the first period, decreasing in the other periods. No significant changes were observed across the periods. Among women, a positive significant association was identified only in Stockholm (RR around 2 in the three periods). There were no significant changes across the periods except in London with a RR of 0.49 (95% CI: 0.35-0.68) in the third period. Area socioeconomic inequalities in suicide mortality did not change significantly after the onset of the crisis in the areas studied.

Rubble Warsaw, 1945–1946: Urban Landscaping and Architectural Remains

This paper is a contribution to the contemporary discussions around architectural materialities and the history of the immediate post-war period in the urban areas of Europe. The opening paragraphs include references to the artistic action The Cut which took place in 2015, exposed the anthropogenic strata in Warsaw’s landscape and acknowledged the continuous material existence of the city’s history within its soil. Focusing on rubble, debris and post-war architectural waste, the author presents the theoretical approach by referring to a broad shift in the humanities towards approaches oriented towards objects and particular materialities. The subsequent historical narrative centres on the problems of rubble clearing and utilisation in the early reconstruction period of Warsaw. It shows the views and operations aimed at the removal of the mass of rubble proposed by the architects from the Bureau for the Capital City Reconstruction (BOS) and the inhabitants returning to the ruined city in 1945. Mobilising both narratives, the paper presents problems and discussions related to rubble utilisation and removal. Referring to Maciej Nowicki’s unrealised design for Warsaw’s city centre and contrasting it with the oral testimonies of the city’s inhabitants, the article reveals the struggles and discussions that raged during that early stage of city reconstruction. Finally, through the use of various sources from geological mapping to archival materials, the paper aims to locate, describe and document the rubble landscapes located around the city of Warsaw. In the conclusion the author points out how the subject could be expanded and how rubble relates to contemporary discourses in the humanities.

Leaves of common urban tree species (Aesculus hippocastanum, Acer platanoides, Betula pendula and Tilia cordata) as a measure of particle and particle-bound pollution: a 4-year study

Magnetic biomonitoring using tree leaves has been proven as a proxy for airborne particle matter (PM) pollution. Since the leaf entrapment of PM is species-specific, in this study, four tree species common in urban areas of Europe and wider (Aesculus hippocastanum, Acer platanoides, Betula pendula and Tilia cordata) were investigated to evaluate which biomonitor enables consistent ‘signal’ to particle and particle-bound toxic elements. The tree leaves were sampled in the central urban and suburban parks in Belgrade (Serbia) in May and September from 2011 until 2014. Magnetic PM fractions in the samples were quantified by saturation isothermal remanent magnetization (SIRM) while the concentrations of Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb and Zn were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Magnetic and elemental measurements were considered in relation to regulatory PM10 data. Median leaf SIRM values of T. cordata, A. hippocastanum and A. platanoides (174, 140 and 123 × 10−5 × A m2 kg−1, respectively) implied the considerable magnetic enhancement contrary to B. pendula (68 × 10−5 × A m2 kg−1). However, B. pendula leaves showed the significant correlation between SIRM and PM10 values (r = 0.75) and SIRM and element concentrations and significant spatio-temporal differences in SIRM/element content between the studied parks/years. These results recommend B. pendula as a valuable biomonitor of PM and the associated elements. Nevertheless, both the results (high SIRM values, the significant correlation between SIRM and PM10—r = 0.71) and literature findings (abundance, adaptability, PM removal efficiency) favour A. platanoides over B. pendula in magnetic particle biomonitoring.

Sustainable transitions in residential energy use: Characteristics and governance of urban-based initiatives across Europe

Abstract Reducing domestic energy use in cities has become a key focus in achieving sustainability goals. Recent and on-going efforts to address excessive residential energy use have taken various forms and have been initiated by a range of different actors. This paper presents evidence from the analysis of a database of 249 recent sustainable energy initiatives that have been implemented at various scales in and across urban areas in Europe. The paper examines common trends and characteristics in the type of initiatives that are promoted, including the problem definition, general approach, and implementation method. A second focus of enquiry centers on the governance mechanisms that underpin these initiatives. Here, attention turns to the main actors responsible for driving initiatives, the frequency and various forms of implementing partnerships, and the funding source through which the selected initiatives are financed. Two major themes emerged from reviewing the data, namely stratification and integration. Stratification or integration was evident across five key areas including problem framing, general approach, engagement mechanisms, governance, and evaluation frameworks. A corresponding typology of initiatives is presented under four categories: Enhancing; Directional; Experimental; and Responsive. Applying the typology to the dataset shows that enhancing initiatives aimed at optimizing technology or individual behavior are most prevalent (56%). Experimental initiatives that deliberate with new ways of living (16%) or responsive initiatives that consider contextual-needs (14%) are less prevalent and are more likely to occur at a smaller scale. Overall, we argue that integration across key areas can increase the success of initiatives that aim to achieve long-term sustainable transformation in household energy use.

Performance evaluation of the VITROS® hs Troponin I assay⁎ on the VITROS® ECi/ECiQ and 3600 immunodiagnostic and VITROS® 5600/XT 7600 integrated systems

A large part of the European population is still exposed to ambient nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels exceeding the European Union (EU) air quality standards, being a key challenge to reduce NO2 concentrations across many European urban areas, particularly close to roads. In this work, a trend analysis of pollutants involved in NO2 processes was done for the period 2003–2014 in traffic sites from three Spanish cities (Barcelona, Madrid and Granada) that still exceed the European NO2 air quality standard limits. We also estimated the contributions of primary NO2 emissions and photo-chemically formed NO2 to the observed ambient NO2 concentrations in order to explore their possible role in the observed NO2 concentration trends. The NOx and NO concentrations at these traffic sites showed significant decreasing trends during the period 2003–2014, especially at Barcelona (BARTR) and Madrid (MADTR) traffic stations. The NO2 concentrations showed statistically significant downward trends at BARTR and MADTR and remained unchanged at Granada traffic station (GRATR) during the study period. Despite the significant decrease in NO2 concentrations in BCNTR and MADTR during the analysed period, the NO2 concentrations observed over these sites still above the annual NO2 standard limit of 40 μg m−3 and, therefore, more efficient measures are still needed. Primary NO2 emissions significantly influence NO2 concentrations at the three analysed sites. However, as no drastic changes are expected in the after-exhaust treatment technology that can reduce primary NO2 emissions to zero in the near future, only a substantial reduction in NOx emissions will help to comply with the NO2 European air quality standards. Reduction of 78%, 56% and 16% on NOx emissions in Barcelona, Madrid and Granada were estimated to be necessary to comply with the NO2 annual limit of 40 μg m−3.

Measuring the Impact of Ride-Hailing Firms on Urban Congestion: The Case of Uber in Europe and United States

This paper examines the impact of Uber, the world’s largest ride-hailing firm, on congestion. Drawing on data from large urban areas in Europe and the United States for the period 2008 through 2016, it finds a negative impact of Uber on congestion in Europe and a positive impact in the United States. Results suggest that ride-hailing firms have brought about an increase in vehicle utilization of for-hire cars with drivers in Europe, while they have promoted an increase in the size of the for-hire car with drivers sector in the United States.

Concentration of populations and economic activities, growth, and convergence in Europe using satellite-observed lighting

Using a unique data set of annual nighttime satellite images from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program’s Operational Linescan System, this article, under the assumption that the density of sum of lights is a proxy for the concentration of populations and economic activities, provides empirically based evidence on the extent of concentration, growth and convergence in Europe between 1992 and 2012. We find that the concentration of populations and economic activities was associated with the level, density and growth of economic factors. Decomposing these economic factors, the agricultural sector, which was a sector resilient to economic recession, seems to have been the key determinant of concentration. Finally, there is strong evidence of divergence in concentration, implying that socioeconomic activities will continue to be concentrated in European urban areas.

Following the population of European urban areas in the last half century (1961-2011): the TRADEVE database

In this paper we present the methodological issues and choices related to the construction of the TRADEVE database, which allows following the population of European urban areas since 1961. Whereas most of the recent academic works related to this issue focus either on time depth (for larger cities) or on the large coverage of urban hierarchy (for a shorter period), one of the main interests of the TRADEVE database is to extend over a relatively long period (from 1961 to 2011) and to cover small and medium sized cities at the same time. But, above all, it distinguishes by taking into account the spatial expansion of urban areas during a period characterized by a pronounced sprawling process. First insights are provided that allow studying the hierarchical and regional expressions of urban growth slowing down during this period. A cluster analysis performed on the demographic trajectories of cities shows that 22% are decreasing, i.e. 870 out of the 3,930 considered in the database. Along with the paper, the TRADEVE database fully documented with metadata is available online in open access.

Heat Roadmap Europe: Heat distribution costs

This analysis elaborates further the concept of physical and economic suitability for district heating in EU28 by an aggregation regarding key dimensions such as land areas, populations, heat demands, and investment volumes. This aggregation is based on a resolution on hectare level by slicing the total land area into 437 million pieces. Results show that heat demands in buildings are present in 9% of the land area. Because of high concentrations in towns and cities, 78% of the total heat demand in buildings originate from dense urban areas that constitute 1.4% of the total land area and 70% of the population. Due to these high heat densities above 50 MJ/m2 per year, the paper evaluates a setting where district heating is individually expanded in each member state for reaching a common 50% heat market proportion in EU28 at lowest cost. At this saturation rate, the aggregated EU28 district heat deliveries would increase to 5.4 EJ/a at current heat demands and represents an expansion investment volume, starting from current level of 1.3 EJ, of approximately 270 billion euro for heat distribution pipes. Given the current high heat densities in European urban areas, this study principally confirms earlier expectations by quantitative estimations.

Spatial variability in air pollution exposure in relation to socioeconomic indicators in nine European metropolitan areas: A study on environmental inequality

A limited number of studies have addressed environmental inequality, using various study designs and methodologies and often reaching contradictory results. Following a standardized multi-city data collection process within the European project EURO-HEALTHY, we conducted an ecological study to investigate the spatial association between nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as a surrogate for traffic related air pollution, and ten socioeconomic indicators at local administrative unit level in nine European Metropolitan Areas. We applied mixed models for the associations under investigation with random intercepts per Metropolitan Area, also accounting for the spatial correlation. The stronger associations were observed between NO2 levels and population density, population born outside the European Union (EU28), total crimes per 100,000 inhabitants and unemployment rate that displayed a highly statistically significant trend of increasing concentrations with increasing levels of the indicators. Specifically, the highest vs the lowest quartile of each indicator above was associated with 48.7% (95% confidence interval (CI): 42.9%, 54.8%), 30.9% (95%CI: 22.1%, 40.2%), 19.8% (95%CI: 13.4%, 26.6%) and 15.8% (95%CI: 9.9%, 22.1%) increase in NO2 respectively.The association with population density most probably reflects the higher volume in vehicular traffic, which is the main source of NO2 in urban areas. Higher pollution levels in areas with higher percentages of people born outside EU28, crime or unemployment rates indicate that worse air quality is typically encountered in deprived European urban areas. Policy makers should consider spatial environmental inequalities to better inform actions aiming to lower urban air pollution levels that will subsequently lead to improved quality of life, public health and health equity across the population.