European Union Member States Research Articles

The Green Economy in the Energy Transformation Process—Comparative Analysis of the European Union Member States

The article mainly examines spatial diversification of the green economy in EU countries in 2014 and 2021 in the context of the energy transformation process. In the theoretical part of the work, the green economy concept, with reference to the conditions of the green energy, was analyzed. The research procedure used in the article is based on multidimensional comparative analysis. The empirical verification was conducted using green economy indicators that are published periodically by the OECD and Eurostat. Based on 21 indicators, a synthetic green economy index was designed for 27 EU member states. In the selected set of detailed indicators, those related to green energy economy played an important role. This approach allowed for the creation of rankings and comparisons between EU countries in 2014 and 2021, i.e., the implementation period of the Europe 2020 Strategy. In this period, the priority areas of EU development were: the low-carbon economy, including the use of renewable energy sources and improvement of energy efficiency, as well as the introduction of eco-innovation. Green energy should be the basis for the functioning of highly developed countries and socio-economic progress in the case of developing countries. Based on the analysis, a large discrepancy in terms of green economy was observed in the examined countries. Particular attention was paid to disproportions in the area of green energy. The average value of the synthetic measure of the green economy in the EU countries increased in the studied years from 0.4488 to 0.4529, which can be interpreted as a slight acceleration in the greening processes. The added value of the research presented in the paper and its novelty is the analysis of the current patterns of green transformation in EU member states, with particular emphasis on energy factors.

A harmonized data set of ruminant livestock presence and grazing data for the European Union and neighbouring countries

Improving the sustainability of the European livestock sector requires recent data at high spatial resolutions. Only then can we analyse potential negative impacts of livestock related to ecosystem degradation, and positive ones such as preserving cultural landscapes through grazing. Data on livestock numbers in Europe are provided by the European statistical office but at a coarse spatial resolution aggregated to statistical regions like NUTS2 or even coarser. While data on a more detailed level, such as local administrative areas, are available from individual national statistical offices, a collection of harmonized data has not been available until now, limiting the use of livestock data in environmental and agricultural studies. We collected data from all European Union Member States and neighbouring countries, resulting in the most up to date and spatially explicit dataset on livestock numbers publicly available to all researchers. We provide data on livestock numbers for more than 70,000 administrative units in 43 countries and territories. In addition, we provide data on the share of cattle that are grazing.

Secure in Diversity? Transborder Ethnicity, Transnational Minority Activism, and Ontological (In)Security in the European Union

Abstract The liberal vision of the early 1990s envisaged the eastward extension of the Western European security community formed during the Cold War, based on intergovernmental cooperation and integration around the shared norms embodied by the European Union (EU), Council of Europe, and Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Yet, transborder ethnic ties have remained a security concern within the “New Europe.” As well as the external challenges posed by Russia’s aggression against Ukraine, growing transborder nationalism exhibited by Hungary and other states has also become a focus of tensions within the EU. These intra-EU concerns, I argue, should be understood primarily as an issue of ontological security and as part of a multilevel security dilemma implicating states, EU institutions, and national minorities as security-seeking non-state actors. The article focuses on the Federal Union of European Nationalities—a transnational umbrella NGO that in 2013–2021 led an unsuccessful European Citizens’ Initiative named “Minority SafePack” (MSPI) calling upon the European Commission to legislate on firmer guarantees of minority rights within EU member states. Applying the ontological security lens to the study of MSPI, I illustrate how it reflects specific claims voiced by transborder kin-minority activists consistently over the past century, before analyzing the counter-securitizing arguments deployed against it by states. Although MSPI was approved with a large majority within the European Parliament, the Commission ultimately rejected it. I consider why this was the case, as well as the implications of the rejection for the in varietate concordia concept that supposedly undergirds the European project.

Multivariate Analysis of the Determinants of Total Mortality in the European Union with Focus on Fat Intake, Diabetes, Myocardial Infarction, Life Expectancy, and Preventable Mortality: A Panel Data Fixed-Effects Panel Data Model Approach.

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the European Union (EU), and while the mortality rates of diabetes, myocardial infarction, and the total fat intake have been extensively studied, we believe that understanding the interaction between such closely correlated determinants is crucial to the development of effective health policies in the EU. Our paper's novelty is represented by the econometric modelling, and its ability to capture both temporal and unit variations. The research methodology consists of using a panel data model with fixed effects for the 27 EU member states over the period 2010-2021. The results of the study show that the standardized mortality rate for deaths preventable by prevention and treatment and diabetes-related mortality are significant predictors of total mortality in the EU. The standardized mortality rate for deaths preventable by prevention and treatment had a significant positive impact, suggesting that improved preventive and therapeutic interventions can significantly reduce total mortality. Diabetes-associated mortality also showed a strong positive correlation with total mortality, emphasizing the need for effective diabetes management and prevention strategies. These results are useful for the formulation of public health strategies aimed at improving life expectancy and reducing the burden of chronic diseases.

Advancing Nuclear Research and Education in Slovenia and EU: From Operating the TRIGA Reactor to Building a New Generation Facility

AbstractThe TRIGA Mark II research reactor at the Jožef Stefan Institute in Slovenia achieved first criticality in 1966. Since then, the reactor has been playing an important role in developing nuclear technology. The reactor has been mainly used for research, education of university students, training of operators of the Krško nuclear power plant (start of operation in 1983) and other nuclear specialists, isotope production and beam applications. The reactor is experiencing a high level of activity today, engaging in a diverse range of experiments and studies across reactor physics, environmental research, radiation hardness testing as well training and education. The future of nuclear technology in Slovenia is focused on new NPPs, while the research community is looking forward to a possible new nuclear reactor. The basic initiatives are at a very preliminary stage: the primary choice is dual-core pool-type reactor, with a zero-power core and a separate MW-size core, cooled and moderated with light water. Such a dual-core configuration is designed to meet the varied requirements of the European Union member states. Another option would be hosting one or more micro-reactors with electrical and/or heating power producing capability that could offer stronger support toward demonstration of prototype small modular reactors in prototype future electrical grids.

Portuguese Households on a Tightrope: Income Vulnerability during the COVID-19 Pandemic

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Portuguese government implemented emergency fiscal measures to protect incomes. Despite these efforts, Portugal’s poverty rate increase in 2020 was the steepest among all European Union member states. The present article maintains that the prevailing labor market institutions limited the impact of the pandemic-related emergency measures. These institutions include social policies (such as low social benefits, minimum wages near the poverty line, and weak employment protection) as well as employment practices (such as precarious employment contracts and low wages). Established institutions increased households’ vulnerability to poverty and exacerbated the GDP/poverty nexus. JEL Classification: A120, B520, I380, N340.

The genesis of pardon in Ukraine and the European Union Member States

The genesis of pardon in Ukraine and the European Union Member States

Analysis of implementation factors of management systems – case of the Republic of Croatia

Management systems can serve as a foundation for more efficient and effective organizational management. By certifying their management system, an organization demonstrates its commitment to excellence and focus on meeting interested parties’ requirements. However, certification is determined by the decision of the organization’s management, which can be influenced by various factors such as the organization’s size, the market in which it operates, market opportunities, availability of financial resources, the organization’s product portfolio, and more. Therefore, the aim of this research is to identify the factors that influence the management’s decision to initiate the certification process and certify the management system. The research was conducted on a sample of 320 business entities registered in the Republic of Croatia. The research instrument was a questionnaire, and the research results can be used to compare different countries in the Western Balkans region or European Union member states.

Checkmating the Nutri-Score: Will Food Patriotism Prevent the Harmonization of Front-of-Pack Labeling Schemes within the EU?

Front-of-pack labeling schemes are an effective but contested regulatory approach to nudge consumers toward healthy food choices. The Nutri-Score, being implemented by eight European countries, is one of the most elaborated and evidence-based examples. Therefore, the Nutri-Score has been deemed as the front-runner within the European Commission's attempt to harmonize front-of-pack labeling among European Union (EU) member states under its Farm-to-Fork strategy by the end of 2022. However, the endeavor is on the brink of failure because of massive resistance by Mediterranean member states and parts of the food industry capitalizing on patriotic narratives (e.g., “Made in Italy”). This article investigates the Nutri-Score saga from a political and commercial determinants of health lens. It argues that an EU-wide rollout of the label hinges on the specific interplay between political structures and stakeholder agency. As shown, the EU's weak decision-making power has been exploited by the No-Nutri-Score alliance.

Solidarity as a Political Determinant of Health: Insights from EU Competition Policy

Context: The connection between law and political determinants of health is not well understood, but nevertheless it is suggested that the two are inseparable, and this represents an upstream level with scope for influencing other determinants of health (particularly social determinants). Solidarity underpins European health care systems, and given its clear link with redistribution, it can be seen as a means for addressing health inequities. As such, solidarity may be seen as a political determinant of health in the specific context of European Union (EU) competition policy. Methods: A range of EU case law, treaty provisions, and European Commission publications relating to EU competition policy are analyzed. Findings: Solidarity is typically juxtaposed as antithetical to competition and thus as underpinning exceptions to the applicability of prohibitions on anticompetitive agreements, abuse of dominance, and state aid. Case law indicates an additional dynamic between definitions of solidarity at the EU and national levels. Conclusions: This analysis leads to two groups of considerations when framing solidarity as a political determinant of health in the EU competition policy context: first, the predominance of solidarity suggests it may shape competition reforms; second, the EU–member state dynamic indicates less EU-level reach into national competition reforms in health care than may be expected.

The Relationship between Technological Innovation and Economic Growth in EU Countries: A System GMM Approach

Purpose: This study aims to investigate the effects of technological innovation and scientific research on economic growth in European Union (EU) countries. It emphasizes the importance of prioritizing these factors for sustainable development and global competitiveness. Methodology: The research, conducted using panel data analysis and the System GMM method, examines the relationship between R&D expenditures and per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Findings: Existing research indicates that innovation and research positively affect economic performance. Technological innovation supports economic expansion by enabling the creation of new products and improving production methods, while scientific research also makes a significant contribution to economic growth. The study confirms a positive relationship between R&D expenditures and GDP per capita, indicating economic growth. Originality: In contrast to existing literature, the results are analyzed comparatively on EU countries using methods such as Prais-Winsten and System GMM. Additionally, the discussion conducted on the group of EU member states addresses the concepts of sustainable development and global competitiveness.

A Framework for Studying EU Health Policy through a Political Determinants of Health Lens: The Case of the European Health Union

Context: The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted how the European Union (EU) impacts national health systems and people's health. In November 2020, the European Commission launched the European Health Union (EHU) to better coordinate and maximize EU member states’ abilities to deal with cross-border health threats. This article scrutinizes the early institutionalization of the EHU and its implications for EU health policy as a political determinant of health (PDoH). Methods: The article explores how EU health policy may be appreciated from a PDoH perspective. It draws from EU documents and existing research to analyze the early-stage institutionalization of the EHU. The study complements this policy output–focused perspective with an outcome-based exploratory assessment of EU health policy as a PDoH focusing on three examples: joint vaccine procurement, health reforms and investments under the Recovery and Resilience Facility, and the development of a European Health Data Space. Findings: The article shows that the policy change triggered by the EHU and the potential impact on citizens’ health are not necessarily congruent. Modest change can have a potentially strong impact on health outcomes and vice versa. Conclusions: The article argues that the PDoH perspective provides a useful approach that is complementary to policy output–based perspectives, allowing for a more comprehensive assessment of the EU's role in health.

Birdnesting Co-Parenting: A Comparative Study in Slovenia and European Union Countries

This paper provides a comprehensive overview of birdnesting co-parenting arrangements within the legal and cultural context of the European Union (EU). Birdnesting, a unique cohabitation arrangement where divorced or separated parents rotate in and out of a shared residence while the children remain in a stable environment, has gained attention for its potential benefits and challenges. The paper explores the legal frameworks, cultural acceptance, and practical implications of birdnesting in various EU member states. Additionally, it discusses the impact of birdnesting on children’s well-being and the potential for its inclusion in family law policies across the EU

A Fuzzy PROMETHEE Method for Evaluating Strategies towards a Cross-Country Renewable Energy Cooperation: The Cases of Egypt and Morocco

Recognising the urgency of addressing climate change and the imperative to mitigate its effects, the European Union (EU) has embarked on a transformative journey to reshape its energy landscape, with a pronounced emphasis on harnessing renewable energy sources (RESs) and augmenting their contribution to electricity generation. To propel Europe towards sustainable development through its energy transition, EU member states are encouraged to foster collaborative efforts on a European scale, inviting neighbouring countries to participate in joint ventures aimed at leveraging RESs for electricity generation. Consequently, it becomes imperative to evaluate the potential depth of cooperation among these nations, assessing how such partnerships can align with Europe’s overarching objectives while fostering mutually beneficial conditions. This paper seeks to undertake a thorough analysis and evaluation of the potential impacts of such cooperation, both in advancing RES objectives and in promoting broader cooperation goals concerning the countries involved. The appropriate methodological framework has been developed, utilising and implementing the fuzzy PROMETHEE multicriteria decision analysis method, to address the problem’s multidimensional character, intending to implement an appropriate action plan and promote production from RESs. The methodology has been applied to assess alternative strategies in two case study countries, Morocco and Egypt, while important outcomes have emerged towards the successful implementation of cooperation mechanisms promoting RES.

THE SOCIAL DIMENSION OF THE ASSET QUALITY REVIEW IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

During the financial crisis that started in 2008, banks in the European Union (EU) needed state aid to stay afloat. After years of bailing out failing banks with public money, which led to high public debt levels across the EU, the European Commission introduced the bail-in approach. This approach required stress tests and asset quality reviews (AQR) to identify capital shortfalls in the various banking systems. The idea was to review the quality of banks’ assets, including the collateral valuations and the adequacy of assets and other collateral provisions. This study focuses on the case of Slovenia, the first EU member state that applied a bail-in approach even before it became a legally binding law at the EU level. The Slovenian bail-in led to the cancellation of all subordinated obligations (shares or bonds) held by thousands of investors, mainly private individuals. The information asymmetry and data confidentiality argument together with the applied assumptions in AQR and stress tests have raised questions about the reliability and credibility of the national and EU authorities in this respect. This paper focuses on the social/human dimension of this case by presenting the current situation through the lens of the temporal dimension of former investors’ plight in their legal attempts to challenge those extraordinary measures. The paper revolves around data confidentiality and other issues that have contributed to the fact that this situation remains unresolved, more than ten years after the nationalisation measures. The finding of this analysis is that former investors have had no legal means to effectively challenge nationalisation measures because the authorities in Slovenia have failed to provide an appropriate tool that would be effective and available in practice.

Territorial Patterns of European Innovation in the Context of Different Innovation Output Proxies: A Spatial MGWR-SAR Approach

AbstractThe paper seeks to explore the drivers of European innovation represented by three innovation outputs (patent, trademark, and design applications), emphasizing spatial autocorrelation and heterogeneity. It includes data from 202 regions from 22 European Union (EU) Member States, along with 18 regions from Switzerland, Norway, and Serbia in 2019, providing a more comprehensive geographic scope. By considering multiple indicators of innovation output, including patents, trademarks, and design applications, the main objective is to examine spatial innovation spillovers and the heterogeneous responses of regional innovation output to innovation inputs in the context of European regions. To achieve this goal, the main instrument of the analysis is a newly proposed methodological framework called Mixed Geographically Weighted Regression-Spatial Autoregressive (MGWR-SAR) models. The analysis suggests that while all innovation inputs (most-cited publications, research and development expenditure in the business sector, human resources in science and technology, and population density) are justified in increasing all innovation outputs, the strength of particular determinants of innovation might vary across regions. Moreover, the analysis reveals valuable insights into how spatial spillovers influence regional innovation. The impact of spatial connections varies across the regions, with patents showing the strongest linkages, affecting about 92.27% of regions. Although trademarks and designs have fewer spatial connections (approximately 50% of regions), they still play a significant role in innovation. Although patents have traditionally dominated discussions of innovation, the findings reveal the importance of incorporating designs and trademarks as complementary indicators. Overall, the study highlights the need for multiple metrics to comprehensively evaluate innovations.

Heterogeneity in Air Pollution Levels and Their Techno‑economic Determinants: A Cluster Analysis of the EU–27

The ongoing decline in environmental quality is one of the biggest global challenges facing humankind today. The purpose of this study is to investigate the differences and similarities among the EU–27 countries regarding air pollution emissions (greenhouse gases and acidifying gases) and their techno-economic determinants, which encompass economic, energy, innovation and institutional quality factors. The analysis covers nine indicators that reflect pollution emissions and fifteen variables that illustrate air pollution drivers. Cluster analysis of the data averaged for the period 2015–2020 was used to identify subgroups of countries. The results show that European Union (EU) countries substantially differ in terms of both air pollution levels and the determinants of the emissions. The analysis revealed a noticeable division between Eastern EU countries, which show similar patterns both in terms of pollution and determinants, and Western EU countries, which were characterised by greater diversity in terms of the analysed features. In light of the results, the assertion about backward and polluted new EU member states compared to more advanced and environmentally uncontaminated old EU countries appears to oversimplify the reality. The findings contribute to the ongoing discussion on environmental quality. Our results indicate the need and space for initiatives that address factors that influence air pollution in order to impede environmental degradation. However, due to the revealed heterogeneity among countries, the efforts should be tailored to the specific country’s characteristics.

Advances in Economic Development through Control of the Underground Economy

In an era of ongoing global development and increasing focus on sustainability, the underground economy persistently identifies novel areas for expansion. This dynamic growth compels states to engage in an ongoing search for effective strategies to regulate and mitigate its effects, while simultaneously addressing the broader implications for economic development. Poverty, financial development, income inequality, and legal framework are analyzed in this paper in relation to the underground economy for the European Union member states between 2004 and 2022 by way of a panel model. Our findings reveal a positive relationship between the levels of poverty among individuals and the underground economy. Conversely, the interplay between the underground economy and both financial development and the legal framework exhibits a detrimental effect. In conclusion, our analysis reveals that the three primary variables examined—poverty, financial development, and legal framework—substantially influence the scale of the underground economy, with important implications for overall economic development and sustainable growth.

Healthcare sectors in EU countries: Their impact on employment and infrastructure development

This scientific study aims to thoroughly assess the current status and evaluate key indicators influencing healthcare and the workforce in selected European Union (EU) member states. Building upon this ambitious research agenda, we focused on a comprehensive descriptive analysis of selected indicators within the healthcare sector, including healthcare financing schemes, overall employment in healthcare and social care, the number of graduates in healthcare (including physicians and general practitioners), as well as migration patterns within the healthcare sector. The data forming the basis of this analysis were systematically gathered from Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Eurostat databases. Subsequently, we conducted a robust correlation analysis to explore the intricate relationships among these indicators. Our research endeavour aimed to identify and quantify the impact of these indicators on each other, with a focus on their implications for overall healthcare and the workforce in the respective countries. Based on the findings obtained, we derived several significant conclusions and recommendations. For instance, we identified that increasing employment in the healthcare sector may be associated with the overall quality of healthcare provision in a given country. These findings have important implications for policymaking and decision-making at the EU level. Therefore, we recommend that policymakers in these countries consider implementing measures to further develop the healthcare sector while also helping to retain and attract qualified professionals in the healthcare industry. Such recommendations could include improving healthcare infrastructure, incentivizing professional education and further training in the healthcare sector, and implementing policies to support healthcare provision more broadly.

Employee share ownership in SMEs – extending benefits for start-ups to conventional firms and social enterprises

PurposeAs this article reports, in recent years most legislative activities focused on start-ups, with as many as 12 European Union (EU) Member States having introduced tax incentives for employee share ownership (ESO) in this type of small and middle-sized enterprise (SME). But incentivising ESO in SMEs should be extended to all SMEs, the engine of the European economy, including those from the social economy, having shown their crucial function for the resilience of our societies during the COVID-19 pandemic.Design/methodology/approachAgainst the background of this recent and very dynamic development this article, it provides an overview of the start-up business segment in comparison to other types of companies, particularly focusing on differences with the SME sector; examines the legal regulations that hinder a broader adoption of ESO in European start-ups; presents best-practice examples to demonstrate the favourable conditions already established in some EU Member States and discussed whether these reforms and best practice examples could be extended and – as is already the case in some countries – applied to the whole SME population including social economy enterprises.FindingsSince the European Commission launched the 2011 Social Business Initiative (SBI) followed by the 2016 Start-up and Scale-up initiative, many actions to support social enterprises in view of their potential to address societal challenges and contribute to sustainable economic growth have followed. Most recently, the 2021 Social Economy Action Plan of the European Commission gave important impulses. The potential of employee buyouts offering a continuation perspective to SMEs owners looking for successors was highlighted in the 2022 EC report “Transition Pathway for Proximity and Social Economy,” calling for the implementation of Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs).Originality/valueThe situation of employee share ownership in start-ups has some parallels with that in traditional SMEs, but in many respects, they differ fundamentally. Although, on the other hand, social enterprises may also have to compete with large firms for qualified staff and face challenges when growing or scaling their activities, the reason why ESO in this enterprise segment is not widespread in the EU is altogether different. In the absence of a prescribed legal form of incorporation, social enterprises operate in various forms (be it for profit or non-profit), e.g. cooperatives, closely held limited liability companies, mutuals, associations, voluntary organisations or foundations. Therefore, this article looks into the extension of the incentives for ESO to social enterprises inasmuch as they are organised in legal forms allowing for share ownership, above all in the form of limited liability companies.