European Temperate Forests Research Articles

Long-term nitrogen deposition reduces the diversity of nitrogen-fixing plants.

Biological nitrogen fixation is a fundamental part of ecosystem functioning. Anthropogenic nitrogen deposition and climate change may, however, limit the competitive advantage of nitrogen-fixing plants, leading to reduced relative diversity of nitrogen-fixing plants. Yet, assessments of changes of nitrogen-fixing plant long-term community diversity are rare. Here, we examine temporal trends in the diversity of nitrogen-fixing plants and their relationships with anthropogenic nitrogen deposition while accounting for changes in temperature and aridity. We used forest-floor vegetation resurveys of temperate forests in Europe and the United States spanning multiple decades. Nitrogen-fixer richness declined as nitrogen deposition increased over time but did not respond to changes in climate. Phylogenetic diversity also declined, as distinct lineages of N-fixers were lost between surveys, but the "winners" and "losers" among nitrogen-fixing lineages varied among study sites, suggesting that losses are context dependent. Anthropogenic nitrogen deposition reduces nitrogen-fixing plant diversity in ways that may strongly affect natural nitrogen fixation.

Recruitment curves of three non-native conifers in European temperate forests: implications for invasions

Recruitment curves of three non-native conifers in European temperate forests: implications for invasions

In search of per capita effects of Prunus serotina Ehrh. invasion on temperate forest understory alpha diversity

Prunus serotina is one of the most widespread alien tree species in temperate European forests. Although numerous studies revealed both negative and positive impacts on native ecosystems, only a few assessed the quantitative impacts along a species abundance gradient, based on aboveground biomass of per capita effects. Here we studied how alpha diversity of forest understory changes with increasing aboveground biomass of P. serotina. In Wielkopolska National Park (W Poland) we established 92 plots in both nutrient-rich and poor Pinus sylvestris stands. We assessed the effects of P. serotina proportion on understory species composition using non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS). We also assessed the effects of P. serotina proportion on alpha diversity metrics using generalized mixed-effects linear models, accounting also for stand age, soil C:N ratio, and light availability. P. serotina biomass ranged from 0.0 to 34.29 Mg ha−1 (with an average of 5.70 ± 0.83 Mg ha−1), comprising 0% to 17.26% (with an average of 2.93 ± 0.43%) of total woody species biomass. NMDS revealed a lack of P. serotina proportion effects on understory species composition. We found small positive impacts of P. serotina proportion on total species richness (+ 8.8 species along a gradient with a 10% increase of P. serotina biomass proportion) and functional richness (+ 0.08). The positive impacts of P. serotina were mostly related to the confounding effect of two factors: an increase in light availability facilitates both the development of understory plants as well as the growth of P. serotina.

Needle Biomass Turnover Rate in Scots Pine Stands of Different Ages

Understanding needle biomass turnover rates in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands is crucial for modelling forest ecosystem dynamics and nutrient cycling. This study examined needle litterfall and biomass turnover in Scots pine stands of varying ages in temperate forests (western Poland). The research focused on determining how stand age affects needle biomass, litterfall and the associated turnover rates. Data were collected from 20 Scots pine stands aged 26 to 90 years, and needle litterfall was measured and analysed in relation to stand characteristics such as age, density and biomass. The average annual needle litter production of the sampled Scots pine stands was 2008 kg·ha−1·year−1, similar to the values previously reported for this tree species in other temperate forests in Europe. The average needle biomass turnover rate for sampled Scots pine stands was 23.4%. We could not support the hypothesis that this parameter depended on the age of the Scots pine stand. The needle biomass turnover rate showed a positive correlation with crown length and a negative correlation with stand density due to the very weak correlations; however, further research is needed to confirm these relationships. Despite this, the parameter can be used to estimate needle litterfall and can be applicable to conditions corresponding to those of temperate forests in Central and Western Europe. This study also highlights the need for further research on needle biomass turnover in temperate forests to improve the accuracy of carbon and nutrient cycling models. This work contributes to a deeper understanding of the role of needle litterfall in maintaining soil fertility and forest productivity, offering insights into sustainable forest management and conservation strategies.

Stable isotope analysis in soil prospection reveals the type of historic land-use under contemporary temperate forests in Europe

The determination of δ13C and δ15N values is a common method in archaeological isotope analysis—in studying botanical and human remains, dietary practices, and less typically soils (to understand methods of agricultural cultivation, including fertilization). Stable isotope measurements are also commonly used in ecological studies to distinguish different ecosystems and to trace diachronic processes and biogeochemical mechanisms, however, the application of this method in geochemical prospection, for determining historic land-use impact, remains unexplored. The study at hand focuses on a deserted site of a Cistercian manor, dating from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries. Isotopic measurements of anthropogenically influenced soils have been compared to approximately 400 archaeobotanical, soil, and sediment samples collected globally. The results reveal the potential of isotope measurements in soil to study the impact of past land use as isotope measurements identify specific types of agricultural activities, distinguishing crop production or grazing. δ13C and δ15N ratios also likely reflect fertilization practices and—in this case—the results indicate the presence of cereal cultivation (C3 cycle plants) and fertilization and that the site of the medieval manor was primarily used for grain production rather than animal husbandry.

Temporal Development of Microhabitats on Living Habitat Trees in Temperate European Forests

AbstractTree-related microhabitats (TreMs) have been promoted as indicators of forest biodiversity and to guide conservation practices. Ensuring the provision of diverse TreMs in the long term is crucial for the survival of many forest-dwelling species. Yet, this task is challenging in the absence of information regarding TreM dynamics. We analysed the temporal development of TreMs on 11,569 living trees in temperate European forests. To identify drivers of change in TreM abundance and richness over a period of 3–12 years, we estimated the rates of TreM persistence and loss events at the tree-level using survival analysis methods: persistence was characterised by consistency and increment events (when TreM numbers were maintained or increased) and loss was defined as a reduction in TreM numbers or their disappearance. Stratified Cox proportional hazards models were fitted for different TreM groups. Our study revealed a highly dynamic TreM development on living habitat trees, particularly on large trees. While specific TreMs are prone to disappearing, irrespective of tree species or TreM groups, total TreM richness persists over a 12-year period. TreMs such as crown deadwood, epiphytes or woodpecker cavities are prone to decrease in the long term. However, large trees were more likely to maintain a certain degree of TreM richness. Increasing diameters resulted in high persistence rates in seven TreM groups and concomitantly low loss rates in four of them (exposed sap- and heartwood, concavities). Selecting habitat trees based on TreMs should consider the likelihood of TreMs being lost over time, to ensure the long-term provision of microhabitats for associated species. Graphical Abstract

The effects of solar radiation on daily and seasonal stem increment of canopy trees in European temperate old-growth forests.

It is well established that solar irradiance greatly influences tree metabolism and growth through photosynthesis, but its effects acting through individual climate metrics have not yet been well quantified. Understanding these effects is crucial for assessing the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems. To describe the effects of solar irradiance on tree growth, we installed 110 automatic dendrometers in two old-growth mountain forest reserves in Central Europe, performed detailed terrestrial and aerial laser scanning to obtain precise tree profiles, and used these to simulate the sum of solar irradiance received by each tree on a daily basis. Generalized linear mixed-effect models were applied to simulate the probability of growth and the growth intensity over seven growing seasons. Our results demonstrated various contrasting effects of solar irradiance on the growth of canopy trees. On the one hand, the highest daily growth rates corresponded with the highest solar irradiance potentials (i.e. the longest photoperiod). Intense solar irradiance significantly decreased tree growth, through an increase in the vapor pressure deficit. These effects were consistent for all species but had different magnitude. Tree growth is the most effective on long rainy/cloudy days with low solar irradiance.

The largest European forest carbon stocks are in the Dinaric Alps old-growth forests: comparison of direct measurements and standardised approaches

BackgroundCarbon (C) sink and stock are among the most important ecosystem services provided by forests in climate change mitigation policies. In this context, old-growth forests constitute an essential reference point for the development of close-to-nature silviculture, including C management techniques. Despite their small extent in Europe, temperate old-growth forests are assumed to be among the most prominent in terms of biomass and C stored. However, monitoring and reporting of C stocks is still poorly understood. To better understand the C stock amount and distribution in temperate old-growth forests, we estimated the C stock of two old-growth stands in the Dinaric Alps applying different assessment methods, including direct and indirect approaches (e.g., field measurements and allometric equations vs. IPCC standard methods). This paper presents the quantification and the distribution of C across the five main forest C pools (i.e., aboveground, belowground, deadwood, litter and soil) in the study areas and the differences between the applied methods.ResultsWe report a very prominent C stock in both study areas (507 Mg C ha− 1), concentrated in a few large trees (36% of C in 5% of trees). Moreover, we found significant differences in C stock estimation between direct and indirect methods. Indeed, the latter tended to underestimate or overestimate depending on the pool considered.ConclusionsComparison of our results with previous studies and data collected in European forests highlights the prominence of temperate forests, among which the Dinaric Alps old-growth forests are the largest. These findings provide an important benchmark for the development of future approaches to the management of the European temperate forests. However, further and deeper research on C stock and fluxes in old-growth stands is of prime importance to understand the potential and limits of the climate mitigation role of forests.

Elevation differentially shapes functional diversity patterns in understorey forest communities when considering intraspecific and interspecific trait variability

AbstractQuestionsWhat is the relative importance of interspecific and intraspecific trait variation and their covariation in the herb layer of European temperate beech forests, and how do they vary with elevation? Is there evidence of interspecific trait convergence at higher elevations, as postulated by the habitat‐filtering hypothesis, and is this convergence enhanced or counteracted by intraspecific variation?LocationNational Park “Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona and Campigna”, Italy.MethodsWe measured four functional traits – plant height, specific leaf area (SLA), leaf dry matter content (LDMC) and leaf area – across 775 individuals from 60 herb‐layer species in 28 forest plots (10 m × 10 m) spanning an 800 m elevation gradient. For each trait in each plot, we computed community‐weighted means (CWMs) and the standardized effect size of functional diversity (SES‐FD). We decomposed total trait variation into its interspecific and intraspecific components, and their covariation. We run linear regression models to assess the impact of elevation on these three components of functional variation. Lastly, we investigated whether higher elevation communities exhibited lower SES‐FD, indicating functional convergence that could hint to a stronger habitat filtering.ResultsInterspecific trait variation was more important than the intraspecific counterpart both for CWMs and SES‐FD. Only CWMs calculated for plant height and LDMC showed a significant relationship with elevation. Low‐elevation communities featured taller, more‐conservative species, whereas shorter, faster‐growing species were more common at higher elevations. SES‐FD remained consistently negative for species turnover and total variation, suggesting stable functional convergence across the gradient.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that interspecific and intraspecific trait variability can be decoupled along an elevation gradient, stressing the importance of individually considering each component of trait variation when studying community composition. Elevation significantly influenced various components of plant community trait variation, with habitat filtering playing a substantial role in selecting plants with specific traits across elevations.

The diversity of within-community plant species combinations: A new tool for assessing changes in forests and guiding protection actions

Biodiversity is changing rapidly, and ecologists use various measures to monitor and conserve it, but not all are equally effective. In the European temperate forests, ecologists are tasked with assessing the impact of global changes on plant species richness; however, this fails at capturing vital information about plant interactions. Using a chronosequence of beech forest stands, spanning 600 years of growth, we demonstrate the application of a different measure of diversity compared to classical species richness in the understorey. This measure, called compositional diversity (CD), considers the number of species combinations and their relative frequency within a community. The response of both classical species richness and CD along with succession, corresponded with our expectations based on ecological theory’s U-shape prediction of diversity along the successional gradient. However, after 300 years, there was a significant decoupling between the two measures’ responses. While species richness remained low and constant across old-growth and primeval forests, CD peaked in primeval forests, implying that the same number of late-successional species generated more diverse assemblages. This new information emphasises the need to protect old-growth and primeval forests not only to conserve species richness but also to preserve their unique network of species co-occurrence patterns – a factor not well represented by the classical species richness measure.

Ash seedlings in a reciprocal transplant experiment—the extent of damage of mature forest stands affects ash offspring performance

In past decades, ash dieback has caused a rapid decline of European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) in temperate forests of Europe. Numerous studies focus on mitigating the negative impacts of ash dieback to forest ecosystems or identifying resistant genotypes. The role of natural selection toward genotypes withstanding ash dieback for ash regeneration has been less frequently studied with experimental means to date. This is, however, necessary in times of global change, because the preservation of ash in Europe’s forests will depend, above all, on the adaptability of the future generations of ash trees. To quantify the extent and effects of ash dieback severity for ash regeneration we selected five forest stands moderately damaged and five forest stands highly damaged by ash dieback, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. We reciprocally transplanted naturally regenerated ash seedlings sampled in the field between these 10 sites. A shading treatment added to each half of the plots per site was meant to test for effects of altered light conditions in the herb layer due to canopy opening caused by ash dieback. With this approach, we tested seedling survival, performance and fungal infection for an interacting effect of origin and target site in regard to ash dieback severity and environmental factors over 2 years and recorded leaf traits (specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content) in the second year. Reduced light conditions under the shading nets had strong effects, influencing first year performance and infection probability as well as second year survival, growth and leaf trait characteristics. Soil conditions had only a marginal influence on transplanted seedlings. Transplantation direction between moderately and highly damaged sites affected infection marginally during the first year and survival as well as leaf traits significantly during the second year. Most notably, seedlings transplanted from moderately damaged to severely damaged sites exhibited the highest infection probability and lowest SLA, while seedlings transplanted vice versa were least likely to be infected and exhibited the highest SLA. Results hint at a first filtering effect by the ash dieback history of a forest stand and might indicate a transition from ecologically to evolutionary driven differentiation of ash seedling responses.

Forest top canopy bacterial communities are influenced by elevation and host tree traits

BackgroundThe phyllosphere microbiome is crucial for plant health and ecosystem functioning. While host species play a determining role in shaping the phyllosphere microbiome, host trees of the same species that are subjected to different environmental conditions can still exhibit large degrees of variation in their microbiome diversity and composition. Whether these intra-specific variations in phyllosphere microbiome diversity and composition can be observed over the broader expanse of forest landscapes remains unclear. In this study, we aim to assess the variation in the top canopy phyllosphere bacterial communities between and within host tree species in the temperate European forests, focusing on Fagus sylvatica (European beech) and Picea abies (Norway spruce).ResultsWe profiled the bacterial diversity, composition, driving factors, and discriminant taxa in the top canopy phyllosphere of 211 trees in two temperate forests, Veluwe National Parks, the Netherlands and Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany. We found the bacterial communities were primarily shaped by host species, and large variation existed within beech and spruce. While we showed that there was a core microbiome in all tree species examined, community composition varied with elevation, tree diameter at breast height, and leaf-specific traits (e.g., chlorophyll and P content). These driving factors of bacterial community composition also correlated with the relative abundance of specific bacterial families.ConclusionsWhile our results underscored the importance of host species, we demonstrated a substantial range of variation in phyllosphere bacterial diversity and composition within a host species. Drivers of these variations have implications at both the individual host tree level, where the bacterial communities differed based on tree traits, and at the broader forest landscape level, where drivers like certain highly plastic leaf traits can potentially link forest canopy bacterial community variations to forest ecosystem processes. We eventually showed close associations between forest canopy phyllosphere bacterial communities and host trees exist, and the consistent patterns emerging from these associations are critical for host plant functioning.

Hot-spots of epiphytic and epixylic lichens in fragmented temperate forests are underpinned by microhabitat heterogeneity and spatiotemporal habitat continuity

Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation are major causes of the ongoing decline of epiphytic and epixylic lichen species in temperate forests throughout Europe. We investigated how extant species richness and composition of epiphytic and epixylic lichen communities in ten hot-spots of lichen diversity in the Czech Republic reflected the occurrence and properties of potentially suitable microhabitats and habitats. At each hot-spot, we surveyed a pair of 1-ha square plots, one in (over-)mature managed and the second in unmanaged forest. In total, we recorded 513 epiphytic and epixylic lichen species which represent a substantial part of lichen biota in Central Europe. Species richness and composition of lichen communities were explained by microhabitat heterogeneity, and also by the area of near-natural forest habitats (habitat extent) at the landscape scale. In addition, lichen species richness and number of red-listed species were explained by a categorial variable distinguishing mature managed and unmanaged plots, used as a proxy of temporal continuity of natural succession. This finding illustrates that temporal continuity of natural succession in unmanaged forests likely had an extra stimulus for lichen communities that may not be reflected by observed aspects of forest habitats. Hence, we confirmed indispensable positive effects of (micro)habitat heterogeneity, and spatial and temporal continuity for preserved hot-spots of lichen diversity in Central Europe. Due to generally slow colonization-extinction dynamics of epiphytic and epixylic lichens we call for strengthening microhabitat heterogeneity, and the spatial and temporal continuity of European temperate forests at the landscape scale.

Tall, large-diameter trees and dense shrub layer as key determinants of the abundance and composition of bird communities in oak-dominated forests

Increasing human activity is altering the structure of forests, which affects the composition of communities, including birds. However, little is known about the key forest structure variables that determine the richness of bird communities in European temperate oak forests. We, therefore, aimed to identify key variables in these habitats that could contribute to the design of management strategies for forest conservation by surveying 11 oak-dominated forest sites throughout the mid-mountain range of Hungary at 86 survey points to reveal the role of different compositional and structural variables for forest stands that influence the breeding bird assemblages in the forests at the functional group and individual species levels. Based on decision tree modelling, our results showed that the density of trees larger than 30 cm DBH was an overall important variable, indicating that large-diameter trees were essential to provide diverse bird communities. The total abundance of birds, the foliage-gleaners, primary and secondary cavity nesters, residents, and five specific bird species were related to the density of high trunk diameter trees. The abundance of shrub nesters was negatively influenced by a high density of trees over 10 cm DBH. The density of the shrub layer positively affected total bird abundance and the abundance of foliage gleaners, secondary cavity nesters and residents. Analysis of the co-dominant tree species showed that the presence of linden, beech, and hornbeam was important in influencing the abundance of various bird species, e.g., Eurasian Treecreeper (Certhia familiaris), Marsh Tit (Poecile palustris) and Wood Warbler (Phylloscopus sibilatrix). Our results indicated that large trees, high tree diversity, and dense shrub layer were essential for forest bird communities and are critical targets for protection to maintain diverse and abundant bird communities in oak-dominated forest habitats.

The role of dispersal limitation in the forest biome shifts of Europe in the last 18,000 years

AbstractAimHow the ability of plants to move towards newly favourable habitats (dispersal limitation) impacts the change of biome distribution and transition under fast climate warming is still debated. Analysing vegetation change in the past may help to clarify the relative importance of underlying ecological processes such as climate, biotic interactions, and dispersal. In this study, we investigated how dispersal limitation affected the distribution of European forests in the last 18,000 years.LocationSouthern and Central Europe.TaxonSpermatophyta.MethodsUsing the LPJ‐GM 2.0 model (an extension of LPJ‐GUESS), we simulated European vegetation from the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (18.5 ka) to the current time (0 ka). Using biome reconstructions from pollen data as reference, we compared the performance of two dispersal modes: with no migration constraints or seed limitation (free dispersal mode), and with plant establishment depending on seed dynamics and dispersal (dispersal limitation mode).ResultsThe model run, including migration processes, was better at capturing the post‐glacial expansion of European temperate forests (and the longer persistence of boreal forests) than the setting assuming free dispersal, especially during periods of rapid warming. This suggests that a number of (temperate) tree taxa experienced delayed occupancy of climatically suitable habitats due to a limited dispersal capacity, i.e., post‐glacial migration lags.Main ConclusionsOur results show that including migration processes in model simulations allows for more realistic reconstructions of forest patterns under rapid climate change, with consequences for future projections of carbon sequestration and climate reconstructions with vegetation feedback, assisted migration and forest conservation.

Spatial patterns in recent forest growth trends across the Czech Republic

ABSTRACT The radial growth of trees significantly contributes to climate change mitigation by sequestering carbon into woody biomass. Radial growth trends observed in European temperate forests during the recent period of climate warming vary between growth acceleration due to longer growing seasons and growth declines due to amplified drought stress. Assessing the spatial variation of growth trends is challenging due to the point relevance of available empirical data including forest inventories and tree-ring width chronologies. Here, we used a database of tree-ring width chronologies from 596 sites and spatial models to describe the growth trends of five tree species across the Czech Republic between 1990 and 2018. The resulting map highlights multiple sources of variation in growth trends including differences between species and prominent spatial gradients along elevation, latitude, and longitude. The knowledge of spatially explicit growth trends is essential for the adaptation of the forestry sector to ongoing climate change.

Declining potential nectar production of the herb layer in temperate forests under global change

Abstract Wild pollinators are crucial for ecosystem functioning and human food production and often rely on floral resources provided by different (semi‐) natural ecosystems for survival. Yet, the role of European forests, and especially the European forest herb layer, as a potential provider of floral resources for pollinators has scarcely been quantified. In this study, we measured the potential nectar production (PNP) of the forest herb layer using resurvey data across 3326 plots in temperate forests in Europe, with an average time interval of 41 years between both surveys in order to assess (i) the importance of the forest herb layer in providing nectar for wild pollinators, (ii) the intra‐annual variation of PNP, (iii) the overall change in PNP between survey periods and (iv) the change in intra‐annual variation of PNP between survey periods. The PNP estimates nectar availability based on the relative cover of different plant species in the forest herb layer. Although PNP overestimates actual nectar production, relative differences amongst plots provide a valid and informative way to analyse differences across time and space. Our results show that the forest herb layer has a large potential for providing nectar for wild pollinator communities, which is greatest in spring, with an average PNP of almost 16 g sugar/m2/year. However, this potential has drastically declined (mean plot‐level decline >24%). Change in light availability, associated with shifts in canopy structure and canopy composition, is the key driver of temporal PNP changes. Synthesis. Our study shows that if management activities are carefully planned to sustain nectar‐producing plant species for wild pollinators, European forest herb layers and European forests as a whole can play key roles in sustaining wild pollinator populations.

Long-term shift towards shady and nutrient-rich habitats in Central European temperate forests.

Biodiversity world-wide has been under increasing anthropogenic pressure in the past century. The long-term response of biotic communities has been tackled primarily by focusing on species richness, community composition and functionality. Equally important are shifts between entire communities and habitat types, which remain an unexplored level of biodiversity change. We have resurveyed > 2000 vegetation plots in temperate forests in central Europe to capture changes over an average of five decades. The plots were assigned to eight broad forest habitat types using an algorithmic classification system. We analysed transitions between the habitat types and interpreted the trend in terms of changes in environmental conditions. We identified a directional shift along the combined gradients of canopy openness and soil nutrients. Nutrient-poor open-canopy forest habitats have declined strongly in favour of fertile closed-canopy habitats. However, the shift was not uniform across the whole gradients. We conclude that the shifts in habitat types represent a century-long successional trend with significant consequences for forest biodiversity. Open forest habitats should be urgently targeted for plant diversity restoration through the implementation of active management. The approach presented here can be applied to other habitat types and at different spatio-temporal scales.

Evaluation of porcine decomposition and total body score (TBS) in a central European temperate forest.

The total body score (TBS) is a visual scoring method to scale the succession of decomposition stages. It compares decomposition between cadavers, to connect it with external taphonomic factors and estimate the post-mortem interval. To study decomposition in various climatic environments, pigs are often used as human proxies. Currently, there is one TBS system by Keough etal. (J Forensic Sci. 2017;62:986) for surface-deposited domestic pigs, coming from South Africa. Our study aims to evaluate this method and analyze porcine decomposition in Central Europe to inform forensic research and casework. We conducted an experiment studying six 50 kg pig carcasses in a temperate Swiss forest. Three observers documented decomposition patterns and rated the decomposition stages from photographs based on the porcine TBS model by Keough etal. (J Forensic Sci. 2017;62:986). We documented discrepancies between the carcass decomposition of our specimens and those in the South African study, especially related to the high insect activity in our experiment. Furthermore, we noted factors complicating TBS scoring, including rainfall and scavengers. The agreement between TBS observers from photographs was in the highest agreement category apart from one "substantial agreement" category. Our study is the first in Europe to systematically test the Keough etal. (J Forensic Sci. 2017;62:986) method. The results evidence that regional adaptations are required to be applicable for other environments. We present a modified approach based on experimental observations in a Swiss temperate forest. The identification of regional decomposition patterns and drivers will inform future taphonomy research as well as forensic casework in comparable contexts in Central Europe.

Recovery and resilience of European temperate forests after large and severe disturbances

AbstractRecent observations of tree regeneration failures following large and severe disturbances, particularly under warm and dry conditions, have raised concerns about the resilience of forest ecosystems and their recovery dynamics in the face of climate change. We investigated the recovery of temperate forests in Europe after large and severe disturbance events (i.e., resulting in more than 70% canopy loss in patches larger than 1 ha), with a range of one to five decades since the disturbance occurred. The study included 143 sites of different forest types and management practices that had experienced 28 disturbance events, including windthrow (132 sites), fire (six sites), and bark beetle outbreaks (five sites). We focused on assessing post‐disturbance tree density, structure, and composition as key indicators of forest resilience. We compared post‐disturbance height‐weighted densities with site‐specific pre‐disturbance densities to qualitatively assess the potential for structural and compositional recovery, overall and for dominant tree species, respectively. Additionally, we analyzed the ecological drivers of post‐windthrow tree density, such as forest management, topography, and post‐disturbance aridity, using a series of generalized additive models. The descriptive results show that European temperate forests have been resilient to past large and severe disturbances and concurrent climate conditions, albeit with lower resilience to high‐severity fire compared with other disturbance agents. Across sites and disturbance agents, the potential for structural recovery was greater than that of compositional recovery, with a large proportion of plots becoming dominated by early‐successional species after disturbance. The models showed that increasing elevation and salvage logging negatively affect post‐windthrow regeneration, particularly for late‐successional species, while pioneer species are negatively affected by increasing summer aridity. These findings provide a key baseline for assessing future recovery and resilience following the recent occurrence of widespread disturbance in the region and in anticipation of future conditions characterized by increasing heat and drought stress.