European Rabbit Oryctolagus Cuniculus Research Articles

Evidence of an age and/or gender-based division of labor during the Last Glacial Maximum in Iberia through rabbit hunting

Many archaeological assemblages from the Iberian Peninsula dated to the Last Glacial Maximum contain large quantities of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) remains with an anthropic origin. Ethnographic and historic studies report that rabbits may be mass-collected through warren-based harvesting involving the collaborative participation of several persons. We propose and implement an Agent-Based Model grounded in the Optimal Foraging Theory and the Diet Breadth Model to examine how different warren-based hunting strategies influence the resulting human diets. We then visually compare the simulated diets with the zooarchaeological record. Our simulation outputs suggest that rabbits may have been mass collected from warrens by humans through the use of nets and an age and/or gender-based division of labor. Our results have profound implications for the comprehension of hunting behavior and the social organization of humans during the Last Glacial Maximum in the Iberian Peninsula.

Targeted and untargeted metabolomic profiles in wild rabbit does (Oryctolagus cuniculus) of different breeding states (pregnant and lactating).

Ecological nutrition aims to unravel the extensive web of nutritional links that drives animals in their interactions with their ecological environments. Nutrition plays a key role in the success of European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and could be affected by the breeding status of the animals and reflected in the metabolome of this species. As nutritional needs are considerably increased during pregnancy and lactation, the main objective of this work was to determine how the breeding status (pregnant and lactating) of European wild rabbit does affects nutritional requirements and their metabolome (using targeted and untargeted metabolomics), aiming to find a useful biomarker of breeding status and for monitoring nutritional requirements. To address this gap, 60 wild European rabbits were studied. Animals were divided according to their breeding status and only pregnant (n = 18) and lactating (n = 11) rabbit does were used (n = 29 in total). The body weight and length of each animal were analyzed. The relative and absolute chemical composition of the gastric content and whole blood sample were taken, and targeted and untargeted metabolomics were analyzed. As a main result, there were no differences in biometric measurements, gastric content, and targeted metabolomics, except for live weight and nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), as pregnant animals showed higher live weight (+12%; p = 0.0234) and lower NEFA acid levels (-46%; p = 0.0262) than lactating females. Regarding untargeted metabolomics, a good differentiation of the metabolome of the two breeding groups was confirmed, and it was proven that pregnant animals showed higher plasmatic levels of succinic anhydride (3.48 more times; p = 0.0236), succinic acid (succinate) (3.1 more times; p = 0.0068) and propionic acid (3.98 more times; p = 0.0121) than lactating animals. However, lactating animals showed higher levels of N-[(3a,5b,7b)-7-hydroxy-24-oxo-3-(sulfoxide) cholan-24-yl]-Glycine (cholestadien) (2.4 more times; p < 0.0420), 4-maleyl-acetoacetate (MAA) (3.2 more times; p < 0.0364) and irilone (2.2 more times; p = 0.0451) than pregnant animals, any of these metabolites could be used as a potential biomarker. From these results, it can be concluded that the most notable changes were observed in the metabolome of individuals, with most of the changes observed being due to energy and protein mobilisation.

Ecological Impacts of Introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) on Island Ecosystems in the Mediterranean

Ecological Impacts of Introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) on Island Ecosystems in the Mediterranean

Niche partitioning and competition between different rabbit breeds using stable isotopes

Stable isotope analysis (SIA) is an evolving method for determining diet, understanding food web and resolving biogeochemical issues in the ecosystem. This study aims to trace out ecological niche preferences/partitioning and competition among the lagomorphs, including two different breeds of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), New Zealand rabbit and American Dutch rabbit, using SIA. Thirty-two samples of tooth enamel were analysed, which were collected from different districts of Punjab, Pakistan, including Okara, Sahiwal and Kasur. Among these samples, 16 belonged to the New Zealand breed (08 male and 08 female rabbits) and 16 to the American Dutch breed (08 male and 08 female rabbits). Significant (P&lt;0.001) intergender differences in the isotope content of δ13C in the enamel for New Zealand and American Dutch rabbit were found. The European rabbits showed significant differences for both genders in the stable isotope of oxygen in the enamel (δ18O) values (P=0.05). Nitrogen stable isotope results showed no significant intergender differences between American Dutch and New Zealand rabbits (P=0.24). The stable isotope results for δ13C, δ15N, and δ18O indicate that the trophic niche partitioning of both breeds overlaps, which can potentially cause competition for resources, whereas the water intake may differ among different genders, which may reflect differential gender-related activities. The archaeological and fossilised data of lagomorphs is present, but there is no significant literature available for living lagomorphs (rabbits). In general, this study provides a basic and first dataset for δ13C, δ15N, and δ18O of living lagomorphs, which can serve as a comparative dataset for future studies.

The impact of sward height, forage quality and competitive conditions on foraging behaviour of free-ranging rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.)

The habitat choice of the small hindgut fermenter, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.), was studied in relation to sward height, forage quality, population size fluctuations and spatial distribution of burrows in a temperate grassland. In a multi-phase differential clipping experiment with alternating short and tall vegetation strips, rabbits tended to graze near the closest burrows in situations of equal vegetation heights, while a clear preference for short swards was found during summer (July). In this period, general crude protein content was significantly lower than in spring (April) and autumn (September), apparently leading to a potential forage quality deficit. The summer behavioural pattern with short sward preference coincided with the relatively higher crude protein content of short swards as compared to tall swards in this period, and with higher intraspecific competition, due to significantly larger numbers of animals present in summer. In autumn, rabbit densities decreased, while crude protein content of both short and tall vegetation increased to a higher, though not significantly different level, comparable with spring crude protein content. In those conditions, significant preference for low vegetation height could no longer be detected. Data suggest that selection for nutritive quality appears when intraspecific competition is high and nutritive quality remains under a certain threshold value. When, in autumn, competition decreases and nutritive quality increases again, short sward preference disappears. We conclude that short sward preference is primarily caused by the better forage quality of re-growth in periods of forage quality limitation, while this preference disappears when forage quality limitation no longer occurs.

Exposure to Coxiella burnetii in Wild Lagomorphs in Spanish Mediterranean Ecosystems.

Coxiella burnetii is an important zoonotic pathogen of worldwide distribution that can infect a wide range of wild and domestic species. The European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) can play a role as a reservoir for this bacterium in certain epidemiological scenarios, but, to date, a very limited numbers of large-scale serosurveys have been conducted for this species worldwide. Although exposure in hare species has also been described, C. burnetii in Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) has never been assessed. Here, we aimed to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with C. burnetii exposure in wild lagomorphs in the Mediterranean ecosystems of southern Spain. Between the 2018/2019 and 2021/2022 hunting seasons, blood samples from 638 wild lagomorphs, including 471 wild rabbits and 167 Iberian hares, were collected from 112 hunting grounds distributed across all eight provinces of Andalusia (southern Spain). The overall apparent individual seroprevalence was 8.9% (57/638; 95% CI: 6.8-11.4). Antibodies against C. burnetii were found in 11.3% (53/471; 95% CI: 8.4-14.1) of the wild rabbits and 2.4% (4/167; 95% CI: 0.1-4.7) of the Iberian hares. Seropositive animals were detected for 16 (14.3%; 95% CI: 7.8-20.8) of the 112 hunting grounds tested and in all the hunting seasons sampled. A generalized estimating equations model showed that the geographical area (western Andalusia) and presence of sheep were risk factors potentially associated with C. burnetii exposure in wild lagomorphs. A statistically significant spatial cluster (p < 0.001) was identified in the south-west of Andalusia. Our results provide evidence of moderate, endemic and heterogeneous circulation of C. burnetii in wild lagomorph populations in Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems. Risk-based strategies for integrative surveillance programs should be implemented in these species to reduce the risk of transmission of the bacterium to sympatric species, including humans.

Adaptive anti-predatory responses of European rabbits exposed to different predation pressure

Prey species develop anti-predatory strategies as a response to minimising the risk of being predated. However, how the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) adapts to different predator pressure is not fully known. Here, we studied the adaptive anti-predatory responses of European rabbits exposed to different terrestrial predation pressure. To do this, we took advantage of a rabbit translocation programme in the Sierra Norte Natural Park of Sevilla (SW Spain), where rabbits from the same donor population were translocated in plots with and without terrestrial predator exclusion fences (aerial predation was not excluded in any of the plots). This presented an ideal opportunity to observe whether the behaviour of individuals from the same population adapts to situations with different predator pressure; thus, their behaviour was evaluated through direct observations. Although most rabbits were observed close to cover, differences in distance to cover, group size and behaviour were observed between fenced and unfenced plots. Overall, both adult and juvenile rabbits moved further from cover in the unfenced plot than in the fenced plot. Most of the observations in the unfenced plot corresponded to rabbits in pairs or alone; whereas in the fenced plot, rabbits were primarily in pairs or in larger groups. Our findings suggest that in the unfenced plot, rabbits that moved further from cover were often part of larger groups (≥ 4 rabbits); whereas in the fenced plot, it was rabbits in smaller groups (< 4 rabbits). Rabbits in the unfenced plot were alert and running more frequently than rabbits in the fenced one; in the latter, these rabbits were mostly feeding. Other relaxed behaviours such us grooming or resting were more frequent close to cover. In summary, our results highlight rabbits' capacity to promptly adjust behaviour in response to predation risk, exhibiting adaptive anti-predatory responses tailored to different predation pressures. These insights contribute to understanding the nuanced dynamics of prey species' responses to diverse predation scenarios.

Puma (Puma concolor) modifications on medium-sized mammals: Can its taphonomic signature be differentiated from other South American carnivores?

The aim of this article is to characterize the taphonomic signature of puma (Puma concolor) on non-ingested bone assemblages of medium-sized mammals. We conducted an experiment in a biopark where two captive pumas were fed ten European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The analysis of the remains showed a highly fragmented assemblage of skeletal remains, mainly dominated by skull fragments and complete distal bones of the limbs. The remains displayed a variety of tooth marks, with punctures ranging in size from 3 mm to 8 mm. We compared these results with similar experiments conducted with Pampas fox (Lycalopex gymnocercus) and Geoffroy’s cat (Leopardus geoffroyi). Only minor differences were noted, such as the range of mark sizes and the specimens' medians. In conclusion, the three carnivores' taphonomic signatures are very similar regarding medium-sized prey and non-ingested samples. Future analysis, including the study of ingested remains and pit measurements, will deepen our understanding of the potential differences.

Morfometrika dlouhých kostí končetin zajícovitých (Lagomorpha: Leporidae)

Morfometrika dlouhých kostí končetin zajícovitých (Lagomorpha: Leporidae)

Histological alterations in various tissues of european rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) under the influence of potassium bromate

Histological alterations in various tissues of european rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) under the influence of potassium bromate

Сучасна теріофауна лівобережжя Каньйонового Придністер’я

The article analyses the current state of the mammal fauna of part of Podolian Transnistria, which lies between the rivers Zbruch and Zolota Lypa (southern Ternopil Oblast, Ukraine). To designate the region, the publication uses a term from old Polish sources—Canyon Transnistria—which reflects the prevailing landform. The area of research in old faunal summaries is mentioned only as part of wider regions, such as Galicia, western Ukraine, or Ternopil Oblast. Over the past decades, the number of publications on the mammal fauna of this particular region has increased substantially, which makes it possible to make a summary overview. The modern mammal fauna of the region comprises 60 species belonging to 7 orders, 20 families, and 41 genera. Over the past 70 years, the mammal fauna of the studied region has undergone significant changes. Its dynamic component is almost 27%. It includes species of recent immigrants (Blyth’s pipistrelle Pipistrellus lepidus, mound-building mouse Mus spicilegus, muskrat Ondatra zibethicus), as well as two species that recovered their range (Eurasian beaver Castor fiber, wildcat Felis silvestris); the dynamic component also includes three extinct or probably extinct species—Geoffroy’s bat (Myotis emarginatus), Podolian ground squirrel (Spermophilus odessanus), and European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). A group of phantom species has been singled out, which are known only from single old finds, and modern studies of these species are far from sufficient to understand their status. It includes the lesser mouse-eared bat (Myotis oxygnathus), Nathusius’s pipistrelle (Pipistrellus nathusii), southern birch mouse (Sicista loriger), and Podolian mole rat (Spalax zemni). Such species as the long-eared bat (Plecotus austriacus) and the pygmy field mouse (Sylvaemus uralensis) appeared in the lists of the mammal fauna of the region due to changes in taxonomy. The rare component of the mammal fauna comprises 18 species (30%). The article provides a brief description of the current state of mammal populations in the region. Conservation recommendations are given for rare species.

High‐resolution mapping of rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) densities for targeted conservation management

Abstract Despite the staggering economic and ecological impacts of invasive animals, maps of their distribution are often only broad generalisations. Detailed knowledge about the spatial distribution of pest animals is crucial to efficiently reduce their numbers in open landscapes where no conservation fencing, or natural boundaries exist. Our case study tests a random but spatially balanced transect design to collect data on the distribution of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), a major destructive pest species in Australian ecosystems, and create distribution maps in relation to abiotic and biotic features. We surveyed an area of 650 km2 in the semi‐arid Flinders Ranges of South Australia using 95 transects (1.4 km length by 50 m width), that were placed with a method originally developed for surveying the ocean‐floor and applied for the first time in terrestrial ecosystems. According to a hurdle model fitted to our data set, the presence of rabbit warrens is influenced by geology, vegetation cover and the topographic wetness index, whereas the number of holes per warren depends on the ruggedness of the terrain, the vegetation cover and whether it has previously been destroyed. The model predicted the numbers of rabbit holes with up to 96.4% accuracy and at a previously unavailable resolution, providing a significant improvement in detail of the distribution of this feral animal. Synthesis and applications: A reliable, high‐resolution map of the distribution of rabbit densities was generated with surveying of less than 1% of the study area, information that can now be used to direct targeted conservation management efforts. This method is highly accurate and can still be improved in future studies.

Mucoid enteropathy/epizootic rabbit enteropathy in two species of cottontail rabbits: four recent cases

Mucoid enteropathy/epizootic rabbit enteropathy is a disease of domestic European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) that has been recognized for nearly 50 years but is still not well understood. Morbidity and mortality are high and can lead to large losses in domestic rabbit production facilities. Recently, the Colorado Wild Rabbit Foundation identified four cases with similar presentations in two species of cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.) undergoing rehabilitation (2020–2022). Clinical signs, gross pathology, and histopathology findings were consistent with what has been described in domestic rabbits.

European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) as seed disperser in arid ecotones of Argentina: non-native herbivore facilitation of native and non-native plants

European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) as seed disperser in arid ecotones of Argentina: non-native herbivore facilitation of native and non-native plants

Hepatobiliary organoids derived from leporids support the replication of hepatotropic lagoviruses.

The genus Lagovirus of the family Caliciviridae contains some of the most virulent vertebrate viruses known. Lagoviruses infect leporids, such as rabbits, hares and cottontails. Highly pathogenic viruses such as Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus 1 (RHDV1) cause a fulminant hepatitis that typically leads to disseminated intravascular coagulation within 24-72 h of infection, killing over 95 % of susceptible animals. Research into the pathophysiological mechanisms that are responsible for this extreme phenotype has been hampered by the lack of a reliable culture system. Here, we report on a new ex vivo model for the cultivation of lagoviruses in cells derived from the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and European brown hare (Lepus europaeus). We show that three different lagoviruses, RHDV1, RHDV2 and RHDVa-K5, replicate in monolayer cultures derived from rabbit hepatobiliary organoids, but not in monolayer cultures derived from cat (Felis catus) or mouse (Mus musculus) organoids. Virus multiplication was demonstrated by (i) an increase in viral RNA levels, (ii) the accumulation of dsRNA viral replication intermediates and (iii) the expression of viral structural and non-structural proteins. The establishment of an organoid culture system for lagoviruses will facilitate studies with considerable implications for the conservation of endangered leporid species in Europe and North America, and the biocontrol of overabundant rabbit populations in Australia and New Zealand.

Habitat and food preferences of European rabbits in core and edge populations along the invasion front Patagonia-Monte, Argentina

Abstract The European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus is an exotic herbivorous mammal undergoing an active phase of geographical expansion in the arid ecosystems of Argentina. The Adaptive Flexibility Hypothesis states that populations at the range edge (new populations) will exhibit greater flexibility in the use of resources compared with populations located in the range core (older populations). The objective of this work was to compare the rabbit’s use of spatial and trophic resources in relation to the establishment time of their populations. The sampling was carried out for 2 years (2017 and 2018) in sites with different establishment times for rabbit populations. Random sampling stratified by type of habitat was applied using 115 fixed strip transects of 1,000 m2 laid out across the study areas. Fresh rabbit signs were recorded in each transect, and environmental and anthropic variables were measured. Our results show that the individuals from the range edge are more selective in the use of habitat than those from the range core. At the microhabitat level, we observed a pattern in the particular components of habitat use by rabbits mainly linked to food availability and proximity to water. From a trophic perspective, rabbits could show flexible adjustment to novel conditions and environments in the range edge. The variability in resource use by the European rabbit confirms its ecological flexibility, pivotal for their advance toward new environments in Argentina.

Population genomic structures and signatures of selection define the genetic uniqueness of several fancy and meat rabbit breeds.

Following the recent domestication process of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), many different breeds and lines, distinguished primarily by exterior traits such as coat colour, fur structure and body size and shape, have been constituted. In this study, we genotyped, with a high-density single-nucleotide polymorphism panel, a total of 645 rabbits from 10 fancy breeds (Belgian Hare, Champagne d'Argent, Checkered Giant, Coloured Dwarf, Dwarf Lop, Ermine, Giant Grey, Giant White, Rex and Rhinelander) and three meat breeds (Italian White, Italian Spotted and Italian Silver). ADMIXTURE analysis indicated that breeds with similar phenotypic traits (e.g. coat colour and body size) shared common ancestries. Signatures of selection using two haplotype-based approaches (iHS and XP-EHH), combined with the results obtained with other methods previously reported that we applied to the same breeds, we identified a total of 5079 independent genomic regions with some signatures of selection, covering about 1777 Mb of the rabbit genome. These regions consistently encompassed many genes involved in pigmentation processes (ASIP, EDNRA, EDNRB, KIT, KITLG, MITF, OCA2, TYR and TYRP1), coat structure (LIPH) and body size, including two major genes (LCORL and HMGA2) among many others. This study revealed novel genomic regions under signatures of selection and further demonstrated that population structures and signatures of selection, left into the genome of these rabbit breeds, may contribute to understanding the genetic events that led to their constitution and the complex genetic mechanisms determining the broad phenotypic variability present in these untapped rabbit genetic resources.

High Mortality of Wild European Rabbits during a Natural Outbreak of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease GI.2 Revealed by a Capture-Mark-Recapture Study

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) GI.2 has caused significant declines in the abundance of wild European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), contributing to the species being recently classified as “endangered” in its native range. The epidemiology of this virus is still poorly understood despite its relevance for domestic and wild rabbits. During a longitudinal capture-mark-recapture (CMR) study of wild Iberian rabbits, O. c. algirus, in a semiextensive breeding enclosure, an outbreak of RHDV GI.2 took place in January-February 2022, allowing us to estimate key epidemiological parameters of a natural outbreak. From April 2021 to July 2022, 340 rabbits were captured 466 times and individually identified, and some were vaccinated against myxoma virus (MYXV) and/or RHDV GI.2. Sera were collected and tested for IgG specific for MYXV and RHDV GI.2, and data were analyzed using multievent CMR models. During six weeks in January-February 2022, an estimated 81.0% (CI95 77.1–84.3%) of the population died. Intensive aboveground searches could recover 189 carcasses (50.5% of the estimated mortality, CI95 41.8–63.4%), with RHDV GI.2 detected in 6/7 tested. Apparent RHDV GI.2 seroprevalence rose from 15.4% (CI95 8.0–27.5%) in January 2022 to 87.9% (CI95 72.7–95.2%) in February 2022. The apparent mortality of RHDV GI.2-seropositive rabbits during the outbreak was estimated as null, while for seronegative rabbits, it was 76.0% (CI95 53.8–90.3%). Among the seronegative rabbits, mortality was higher in unvaccinated (100%) than in recently vaccinated (60.0 ± 16.6%) and in females (100%) than in males (52.0 ± 17.1%). Infected carcasses in the burrows might explain the medium-term disease persistence in the population following the outbreak. Rabbits with antibodies at the cutoff for seropositivity were fully protected from fatal infection. Females had a higher fatality rate than males, underscoring the impact of RHDV GI.2 on the population dynamics of this endangered species.

Nutritional ecology of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus): Factors affecting chemical composition of gastric content.

Nutritional ecology seeks to unravel the extensive web of nutritional links that directs animals in their interactions with their ecological and social environments. European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations its endemic locations are declining and it is considered a keystone species of the Mediterranean ecosystem prompteing the interest in its conservation. The main aim of this study was to determine the nutritional composition of the diet of European rabbits through the relative and absolute chemical composition of the gastric content. To address this objective, gastric content was collected from 80 European rabbits in a Mediterranean area for the analysis of its chemical composition. To this end, gastric content was analyzed for dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), ash, crude protein (CP), highly digestible nonnitrogenous nutrients (HDNN), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF) and lignin. The rabbits were divided into two groups: EMPTY and FULL, depending on the level of stomach filling, directly related to food intake. Our results revealed a positive correlation between the rabbits weight with DM in the gastric content, total gastric content with DM in the gastric content, and DM in gastric content with all chemical parameters analysed. The mean relative values obtained were 8.8%, 25.5%, 40.4% and 25.4%, for ash, CP, NDF and HDNN, respectively. Moreover, EMPTY rabbits had both a proportional (+19%, p = 0.002 and -40%; p = 0.004, on NDF and HDNN, respectively) and absolute (-38%, p = 0.014, -52%; p = 0.012, -52%; p = 0.011 and +83%; p = 0.008 for OM, ash, HDNN, and lignin, respectively) different proportion of nutrients in gastric contents than FULL animals. Since there is a connection between this availability and the fitness of this species, understanding the chemical composition of the rabbit's diet can be utilised to delve into its biology. Our study provides information that will help elucidate the factors affecting the chemical composition of the gastric content of European rabbits to assist land use planners and conservationists in identifying sites for conservation in Mediterranean ecosystems.

The potential role of scavenging flies as mechanical vectors of Lagovirus europaeus/GI.2

The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations of the Iberian Peninsula have been severely affected by the emergence of the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) Lagovirus europaeus/GI.2 (RHDV2/b). Bushflies and blowflies (Muscidae and Calliphoridae families, respectively) are important RHDV vectors in Oceania, but their epidemiological role is unknown in the native range of the European rabbit. In this study, scavenging flies were collected between June 2018 and February 2019 in baited traps at one site in southern Portugal, alongside a longitudinal capture-mark-recapture study of a wild European rabbit population, aiming to provide evidence of mechanical transmission of GI.2 by flies. Fly abundance, particularly from Calliphoridae and Muscidae families, peaked in October 2018 and in February 2019. By employing molecular tools, we were able to detect the presence of GI.2 in flies belonging to the families Calliphoridae, Muscidae, Fanniidae and Drosophilidae. The positive samples were detected during an RHD outbreak and absent in samples collected when no evidence of viral circulation in the local rabbit population was found. We were able to sequence a short viral genomic fragment, confirming its identity as RHDV GI.2. The results suggest that scavenging flies may act as mechanical vectors of GI.2 in the native range of the southwestern Iberian subspecies O. cuniculus algirus. Future studies should better assess their potential in the epidemiology of RHD and as a tool for monitoring viral circulation in the field.