European Ports Research Articles

The challenge of benchmarking carbon emissions in maritime ports

The carbon footprint of ports is an essential step in understanding the most impactful activities in ports and designing reduction strategies to comply with the ambitious target set up by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) of cutting GHG emissions by 50% until 2050 (compared to 2008 levels). Acknowledging the importance of decarbonization, several ports have started to report their carbon emissions in recent years. However, currently, there is not a commonly acknowledged approach to quantify the carbon footprint of ports, making the benchmarking of ports that is the main goal of this paper, a challenging task. The focus is on the topmost polluting European ports, although other major ports outside Europe are also considered. Results show that considering only GHG emissions controlled by port authorities (Scope 1) and emissions related to purchased electricity by port authorities (Scope 2), the carbon footprint of EU ports ranges from 0.017 kg CO2 eq./tonne to 1.27 kg CO2 eq./tonne. When, in addition, indirect emissions from sources not owned or controlled by port authorities (Scope 3) are considered, then the range of values varies from 2.0 to 5.4 kg CO2 eq./tonne. Moreover, results show that Scope 3 is usually neglected in the inventory of emissions of ports due mainly to the complexity of setting the boundaries and extensive data collection. However, when emissions associated with vessels are considered, the contribution of Scope 3 becomes dominant, with shares higher than 97%. Finally, given the importance of having consistent benchmarks for the carbon footprint of ports, this paper further suggests the need for adopting a standardized approach to calculate the carbon footprint of ports.

The Impact of a New Container Port on the Greenhouse Gas Pollution

Abstract Background Large vessels that call at European ports will have to pay for their CO2 emissions from transporting cargo that enters or goes from a European port since January 2024. The costs will increase with increasing global trade. This results in a higher pollution level, including greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions like CO2. Methods/ Approach Based on the gravity model embedded in a global supply chain, we developed a model to evaluate maritime transport pollution in case a new, sufficiently large container port becomes operational. Additionally, we consider how lousy railway connections to European customers increase transportation costs and pollution. Results The approach to the well-connected sequences of gravity models in the intercontinental maritime chains evaluates the differences in quantities of cargo between ports when a new port is opened, and the waiting time does not change. We also highlight that poor rail connections can reduce this positive effect. Conclusions We showed how it is possible to estimate the optimal capacity of a new port with a multi-level gravity model and how this would affect the pollution around the port and on the routes from the port to the final consumers.

The Selective Return of Labor Casualization in Western European Ports

This study examines the impact of demands for labor flexibility on the peculiar post-World War II labor regimes in the ports of Antwerp and Hamburg. These labor regimes included the formation of monopolistic pools of unionized dockworkers, which guaranteed companies a steady supply of experienced personnel and an elementary form of job security for registered workers. The study argues that dockworkers were able to more or less defend the pool system. However, a "market" labor control regime developed for logistical workers outside the confines of these ports, in the immediate vicinity of these ports as well as in Vlissingen, a new port near Antwerp. Vlissingen has become particularly important for the handling of perishable fruit, such as bananas, whose handling requires a high degree of flexibility. The research is guided by the power resources approach and the concept of labor control regimes. It includes field visits and expert interviews.

Spatial planning of the circular economy in uncertain times: Focusing on the changing relation between port, city, and hinterland

The circular economy (CE) brings many opportunities, but also many challenges for ports, cities, and their hinterland. The goal of this paper is twofold. First, we embrace the inherent uncertainty of the spatial impact of the CE on ports and cities. We employ scenario methodology to guide us in steering this uncertainty by developing four scenarios. To explore the complexity of these four scenarios, we focus on the Dutch province of South-Holland. This region hosts the port of Rotterdam, the largest port in Europe, and its direct hinterland consists of a dense urbanised region. As such, the four scenarios cannot only shed a light on the future of the port, but also how its relations with its direct urbanized hinterland can potentially change. In two scenarios deglobalisation occurs. The consequences are, on the one hand, that the port's focus changes more to its direct hinterland instead of a global oriented focus. On the other hand, the existing water bound industrial areas in, or nearby cities increase in importance, in contrast to the contemporary pressure to redevelop these into waterfront residential and commercial areas. In other words, port and city/region grow towards each other. The second goal of the paper is to dive into the specific consequences of these scenarios for day-to-day planning practices. By combining micro-economic and AIS shipping data, we discovered the most important terminals and industrial areas for the transition towards a CE in port, city, and hinterland.

Economic Impacts of the Electric Road System Implementation on the Rotterdam–Antwerp Corridor

Electric road systems (ERSs) are a group of technologies that allow powering adequately equipped road transport vehicles with electricity from the road infrastructure while in motorway traffic. They can be categorised into three technology groups: overhead catenary, ground conductive, and ground inductive, depending on the mode of power transfer used. The supplied energy is used for propulsion and for charging the vehicle batteries to be used once the vehicle leaves the electrified road section. Also, another energy source, e.g., diesel, natural gas, or hydrogen, can be used while away from the ERS. This research investigates the potential impacts of implementing the different ERS technologies on the Rotterdam–Antwerp motorway corridor that links the two largest ports in Europe. The aim is to identify which of the routes between the ports is best suited for the implementation of an ERS, whether there are substantial differences in the economic performance of the different ERS technologies, determine what ERS vehicle traffic volumes are required and potentially available for successful implementation, what investment is required to build the system and whether the ERS operator can be profitable, and whether transport operators could operate their trucks on ERS profitability in this corridor setting. The research shows that the route between Rotterdam and Antwerp that runs on motorway E19 is the best to be electrified from an economic standpoint. Our calculations show that the traffic on the Rotterdam–Antwerp corridor is sufficient for economically justifying ERS infrastructure rollout and operation. For transport operators who happen to have specific client bases, e.g., those who usually serve clients from one of the ports along the electrified route, the construction of an ERS on the route could prove to be very lucrative if they adopt the technology early.

Analysis of the Liner Shipping Network Structure of the Asia–Europe Main Trunk Route Using Social Network Analysis

Due to COVID-19, the shipping market has faced uncertainty, and the possibility of changes in port routes has increased. The purpose of this study was to analyze the network of container liner shipping routes between Asia and Europe. In particular, this research focused on a global risky situation—the COVID-19 pandemic. The data examined encompassed Asia–Europe route schedules from January 2018 to October 2021, which exhibited significant fluctuations due to the COVID-19 pandemic originating in 2019. To access this problem, utilizing concepts of centrality from social network analysis (SNA), namely degree centrality and betweenness centrality, this analysis incorporated route capacity as a weighted factor. The findings revealed that the port of Rotterdam held the highest degree of centrality in 2018, 2019, and 2021, while Shanghai claimed the highest degree of centrality in 2020. Singapore exhibited the highest betweenness centrality. Asian ports wielded greater influence during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to European ports. Furthermore, Singapore emerged as a pivotal mediator in the Asia–Europe routes, playing a significant role within the global supply chain. Results showed that the port could be put into an unstable situation. Therefore, the managers of port and shipping companies should be ready to minimize risk. From an academic perspective, it is difficult to integrate and analyze container liner schedules as they are monthly updated. This study therefore analyzed continuous schedules to examine dynamic changes in schedules. By adopting SNA, we presented changes in connectivity over multiple periods. This study addressed questions stakeholders may have had about route changes during the global crisis, contributing to sustainable container transportation. This study provides a general understanding of Asia–Europe container scheduling for decision makers. Using market schedules, this research analyzed the connections, and evaluated and compared each port.

European ports transition to carbon-neutral energy: A multiple regression analysis

This paper focuses on sustainable initiatives in the maritime industry, specifically energy transition in EU ports. Our research aims to apply the stakeholder theory in port contexts, to examine the influence of different actors on the adoption of carbon–neutral energy generation technologies, from a port-employee perspective. To that aim, the proposed conceptual model is empirically tested through a survey among port employees, following the identification of applicable technologies via a literature review. Specifically, six types of energy generation technologies that advance the goal of carbon neutrality are identified, and likewise, following the stakeholder theory approach, we identified six categories of relevant stakeholders, perceived as external or internal. By means of a multiple regression analysis, we assess the influence of stakeholders identified regarding the carbon–neutral generation technologies. The results corroborate the suitability of the stakeholder approach for assessing port environments. The findings suggest the existence of different perceptions among port employees regarding the various technologies, while stakeholder influence can be either positive or negative depending on the type of technology. Among the stakeholders involved, customers and competitors appear as most influential. The main contribution of our results derive of tackling the differences in perception of carbon neutrality within the European Ports, and the carbon–neutral technologies in ports contributing towards carbon neutrality. By providing a more thorough understanding regarding the influence of diverse stakeholders in promoting carbon neutral energy generation technologies, this study can serve as a guideline for future research and be of value for practitioners in the field.

Culture-led regeneration and the contestation of local discourses and meanings: the case of European maritime port cities

ABSTRACT Culture-led regeneration, understood as a range of policies using cultural activity as a catalyst for urban regeneration, has been widely implemented by many European cities. The interest of local businesses and politicians in these processes seems undiminished despite the various systemic crises hitting European cities. In the meantime, the ways in which culture-led regeneration and its promoters interact with, shape and manipulate local discourses and meanings have become critical for its successful implementation. Drawing upon the literature on the politics of urban development, this paper looks at how culture-led regeneration promulgates, negotiates and manipulates local discourses and meanings. It takes the example of European maritime port cities, where these processes have often served as a means to address the challenges associated with shifting meanings and practices surrounding port-city relationships. We argue that culture-led regeneration schemes operating in port cities in the twenty-first century strive to engage directly with local discourses and meanings associated with past economic activities but, in doing so, renegotiate them, producing hybridized models of regeneration that mirror and align with the agenda of culture-led urban growth coalitions.

Enhancement of per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) quantification on surface waters from marinas in the douro river, Portugal

PFAS, known as "forever" compounds, are prevalent in various environments, including soils and aquatic systems, due to extensive usage. Surface waters in several European countries, especially marinas and ports with high boat traffic, require further study as potential contamination sources. Reliable methods for the extraction and quantification of these emergent compounds are essential. This study aimed to improve an existent solid phase extraction method to analyse marinas and ports’ surface waters with variable salinities (2, 9 and 17 PSU). The objectives were to: 1) optimise the solid phase extraction method, considering matrix salinity effects and cross-contaminations, 2) validate the extraction and quantification method of 18 EPA 537.1 PFAS in estuarine surface waters, using the Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography – Quadrupole Time – Of – Flight – Tandem Mass spectrometry, and 3) apply the optimised method for PFAS quantification in three Portuguese marinas. All ICH criteria were successfully validated considering 9 PSU. Limits of quantification ranged from 117.80 ng/L to 385 ng/L, except for PFHpA (645.85 ng/L). PFAS levels (PFOA, HFPO-DA, PFBS, PFHxS and PFOS) were relatively low, reaching a maximum of 0.32 ng/L only for the PFOA. In Freixo marina, total average concentrations were slightly higher (∑PFAS = 1.02 ng/L) when compared to the ones found in Cais da Ribeira Port (∑PFAS = 0.94 ng/L) and Afurada marina (∑PFAS = 0.81 ng/L). PFOS concentrations are below the limit values set by the Environmental Quality Standards (36000 ng/L of PFOS for inland surface water, respectively), similar to other Portuguese river studies. This study enabled the development of a precise and reliable extraction and quantification method to quantify PFAS in estuarine surface waters, particularly from marinas. This method can be readily applied to analyse PFAS in other estuarine samples.

Reduction Potential of Gaseous Emissions in European Ports Using Cold Ironing

Providing electrical power to ships while they are docked, cold ironing allows ships to turn off their engines and reduces emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases. This study identifies and assesses ship and port emissions and analyzes the potential for emission reduction achievable by cold ironing in European ports. It includes (1) a review of the current state of cold ironing in European ports; (2) an analysis of the time spent in ports by ships; (3) a quantification of emissions potentially avoided by means of a larger-scale use of cold ironing in Europe; (4) an estimation of the benefits achievable and the perspective to play a role in meeting emission reduction targets, improving air quality in port cities; (5) an analysis of the challenges and limitations of larger-scale cold ironing implementation; (6) potential solutions to overcome them. The results of this study could have important implications for (a) the shipping industry, which could benefit from the need for additional standardized electrical equipment onboard; (b) port authorities, which could benefit from providing additional services to the ships; (c) policymakers working to reduce emissions and promote energy efficiency, who could better approach their local and global targets.

Factors Influencing Greenhouse Gas Reduction Measures in European Ports: Implications for Sustainable Investing

European Union cargo and container ports are under pressure to reduce GHG emissions and achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, as mandated by the European Commission. The pace of progress varies among ports. This study examined the characteristics influencing GHG reduction measures in European cargo and container ports and their implications for sustainable investing. The methods used in this study, such as linear regression models to analyze predictive variables, can be applied in sustainable investing to assess which factors most strongly predict a company’s environmental, social, and governance performance. Using linear regression models to analyze data from the 33 busiest European ports, we identified five predictive variables: port size, cargo mix, surrounding population density, access to the sea, and the economic wealth of the host country. Our findings revealed that the port size significantly correlates with the adoption of measures to reduce scope 1, 2, and 3 emissions. This study underscores the importance of contextual and operational factors in evaluating sustainability efforts across sectors. The results contribute to drawing parallels with the field of sustainable investing within finance. This offers valuable insights for sustainable investing, emphasizing the importance of considering various contextual and operational factors when evaluating the sustainability efforts of entities in different sectors.

Maritime Fuel Price Prediction of European Ports using Least Square Boosting and Facebook Prophet: Additional Insights from Explainable Artificial Intelligence

Prediction of bunker fuel spot prices at a port and understanding the dependence on key determinants is an arduous and challenging activity. The present work strives to analyze the temporal spectrum of daily spot prices of Very Low Sulphur fuel Oil (VLSFO), a critical bunker fuel, in five European Ports, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Gothenburg, Hamburg, and Rotterdam. The lack of prior research in the allied domain has motivated to undertake the modeling of VLSFO spot prices through the lens of applied predictive analytics. The Least Square Boosting (LSBoost) and Facebook Prophet algorithms are used to draw forecasts in multivariate framework leveraging constructs related to the same fuel prices at different ports, different fuel prices at the same ports, economic indicator, etc. The dynamics have been explicitly examined during the Russia-Ukraine military conflict. Additionally, Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) frameworks have been used to demystify the influence of the chosen explanatory variables at a granular scale. The overall findings espouse the effectiveness of the predictive framework in accurately estimating spot prices of VLSFO in any of the selected ports, and the same heavily depends on VLSFO prices at different ports.

The impact of shipping on the air quality in European port cities with a detailed analysis for Rotterdam

Air quality in cities with large maritime ports is considerably impacted by emissions from shipping activity which is of a growing relevance due to an increasing relative contribution. To explore the extent of shipping emissions to ambient air quality, simulations with the chemical transport model LOTOS-EUROS (LOng Term Ozone Simulation – EURopean Operational Smog model) were performed for the year 2018 at an approximate 1 × 1 km resolution for six European cities with large ports, i.e., Rotterdam, Antwerp, Hamburg, Amsterdam, Le Havre, and London. It was found that depending on the investigated city, 6.5%–62% of the nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentration in the city centres is attributable to shipping activities. This corresponds to contributions of 1.8–11.5 μg/m3 to the ambient air NO2 concentrations. The average NO2 contribution of shipping in these six cities was 28% (7.1 μg/m3). The largest relative contribution was found for Le Havre where 62% (10.8 μg/m3) of the annual average NO2 concentration was caused by shipping emissions. The largest absolute contribution is found for the city centre of Hamburg with 11.5 μg/m3 (41%). The lowest absolute and relative contribution (respectively 1.8 μg/m3 and 6.5%) are found for London, also having the smallest port in terms of tonnage throughput, which is one of the influential factors that determine emission totals, investigated in this study. For the other investigated pollutants, i.e., PM2.5, PM10 and SO2, contributions from shipping were less pronounced with average contribution for all cities of 10% (1.2 μg/m3) 7% (1.5 μg/m3) and 4% (0.16 μg/m3) respectively. To assess the effect of model choices on these results, this study also looked into the choice of simulation resolution and relations between meteorological parameters and NO2 concentrations. Following simulations with varying chemical transport model resolutions (1 × 1 km to 24 × 24 km), it is found that a decrease in ambient air pollutant concentrations away from localized emission sources is more pronounced at higher (1 × 1 km) model resolutions and source contributions are influenced more significantly than total concentrations. Considering meteorology, generally low wind speeds (1–2 m/s) lead to high NO2 concentration in city centres. For the cities where the port is much closer to the city centre (e.g., London, Le Havre, Hamburg and Antwerp) the absolute NO2 concentrations as well as the contributions from shipping emissions become highest for windless conditions. The high concentrations (>60 μg/m3 NO2) only occur when wind speeds fall below 6 m/s.

Environment and blue tourism: Moving towards sustainability—6th maritime tourism observatory for Skyros Island

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph; line-height: 120%; mso-pagination: none; layout-grid-mode: char; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 6.0pt 147.4pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Ports are some of the most significant entry points for Greek tourism investments and can be characterized as “development tools” for the country, both at the local and national level. The blue economy is a recent example of economic development, globally promoted as a way to achieve sustainability in maritime and coastal areas. Linaria Port has been accredited by the United Nations as “the blue port with a shade of green”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN;">,</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> constituting an environmentally sustainable community capable of promoting responsible environmental behavior both within the local community and among tourists. The port has been highly competitive in achieving high sustainability standards and mainly operates in ways that complement environmental quality. It has presented innovative, competitive, and sustainable solutions since 2010. This research aimed to collect primary and secondary data on tourist preferences to evaluate these services. Evaluation was conducted through anonymous questionnaires divided into two parts: the first part concerned the tourist profile, and the second part concerned tourists’ opinions on the services and facilities of the port and the island. In the evaluation of the port, 91% of respondents rated the marina positively compared to other ports in the country, while 77% ranked the port of Skyros in a good position compared to other European or international ports. The overall quality of the tourist product was positively evaluated at 89%, while 90% of visitors were generally satisfied with the overall services offered. Moreover, 95% would return to Skyros within the next few years.</span></p>

INVESTMENT ENVIRONMENT OF THE NETHERLANDS

The paper offers a comprehensive review of the investment environment in the Netherlands, a nation noted for its advanced economy, robust international trade links, and a solid legal framework that supports business activity. The Netherlands features a stable political environment, transparent governance, and administrative efficiency, creating a reliable backdrop for investment. This climate is conducive to innovation and attracts foreign direct investment, especially due to an advantageous tax system. The workforce in the Netherlands is highly skilled and multilingual, which is a critical asset, though the high labor costs could be seen as a deterrent. However, these costs are often offset by the high productivity and the business-friendly policies of the government. The Dutch market is well-connected and integral to the European trade landscape, making it a strategic entry point into the European Union. Transport and logistics infrastructure, particularly the Port of Rotterdam—the largest port in Europe—plays a crucial role in facilitating trade not only across Europe but globally. This infrastructure is supported by a top-tier digital network and service sector, with the Netherlands boasting one of the highest broadband penetration rates in Europe. Despite its many advantages, the investment climate in the Netherlands does face challenges such as regulatory complexity and stringent environmental regulations. These challenges are balanced by the country’s commitment to sustainability and the green economy, which opens up new investment opportunities in renewable energy and sustainable technologies. Furthermore, the Netherlands is proactive in fostering a favorable business environment through various government initiatives. These include incentives for research and development, enhancements in sustainable business practices, and subsidies for green energy projects, all aimed at maintaining the country’s competitive edge. The Dutch government’s approach to international business is also characterized by a network of treaties designed to protect foreign investments and prevent double taxation, making the Netherlands an attractive destination for multinational corporations. The presence of a strong legal system ensures that property rights and contracts are well protected, which is a critical consideration for investors. In conclusion, the Netherlands presents a balanced spectrum of opportunities and challenges. While the high cost of operations and regulatory demands pose hurdles, the strategic advantages, robust infrastructure, and government incentives create a favorable environment for significant investment returns. This detailed analysis serves as an essential guide for potential investors, providing insights into both the macroeconomic stability and sector-specific prospects within the Dutch market.

Modelling the governance of European medium-sized port-cities

The paper presents a model designed to analyse port governance. It considers that thestakeholders ability to adopt cooperative behaviors constitutes the key element to portdevelopment. Its focus is on medium-sized European ports and fifteen cases were studied. Eachterritory was first subject to a qualitative survey and analysis of the contents of local stakeholdersdiscourse (over 80 interviews conducted). The material is rich, allowing for the comparisonbetween two or even three ports, yet the delicate nature of the relations brought to light addsconsiderable complexity to the comparison within a larger ensemble. The paper, therefore,proposes a semi-automatic treatment which helps to mitigate this difficulty by means of acomputer model based on graph theory. It involves a modelling system based on the relationsbetween the entities of the system. In this context, the relations between stakeholders wereanalysed in order to create typologies and eventually envisage some standard models ofgovernance. In order to territorialize the subject, six typical cases out of fifteen were used: LeHavre, Nantes-Saint Nazaire, Dunkirk (France), Gdynia (Poland), Klaipėda (Lituania), Hamina-Kotka (Finland).All these port environments modelled according to a single format (i.e. a graph) led to theapplication of a certain number of metrics which enables them to be compared. Two mainmetrics were presented in the framework of this paper for illustrative purposes: “Density” and“S_metric”. These metrics originating in graph theory, coupled with other indicators (distributionof degrees and number of hubs per port), allowed to measure the relationships' intensity and thedistribution of these intensities among the stakeholders, and to identify the main stakeholders orconversely the least influential.

A multi-criteria simulation of European coastal shipping routes in the ‘age of sail’

This article introduces a new method to model sailing routes before the age of steam based on real-world sailing conditions. Using a broad range of historical meteorological data, it offers monthly routing predictions for historical shipping corridors and tests them against historical evidence. In this article the model was applied to French and British ports. The output reveals the presence of historical shipping corridors and offer the first journey-time metrics to and from all European ports.

Environment and blue tourism: Moving towards sustainability—6th maritime tourism observatory for Skyros Island

Ports are some of the most significant entry points for Greek tourism investments and can be characterized as “development tools” for the country, both at the local and national level. The blue economy is a recent example of economic development, globally promoted as a way to achieve sustainability in maritime and coastal areas. Linaria Port has been accredited by the United Nations as a “The blue port with a shade of green,” constituting an environmentally sustainable community capable of promoting responsible environmental behavior both within the local community and among tourists. The port has been highly competitive in achieving high sustainability standards and mainly operates in ways that complement environmental quality. It has presented innovative, competitive, and sustainable solutions since 2010. This research aimed to collect primary and secondary data on tourist preferences to evaluate these services. Evaluation was conducted through anonymous questionnaires divided into two parts: the first part concerned the tourist profile, and the second part concerned tourists’ opinions on the services and facilities of the Port and the island. In the evaluation of the port, 91% of respondents rated the marina positively compared to other ports in the country, while 77% ranked the port of Skyros in a good position compared to other European or international ports. The overall quality of the tourist product was positively evaluated at 89%, while 90% of visitors were generally satisfied with the overall services offered. Moreover, 95% would return to Skyros within the next years.

The promotion of Shanghai’s position and function in the global container shipping network

ABSTRACT Shanghai’s container throughput has ranked first worldwide for 13 consecutive years beginning in 2010, indicating that Shanghai has built an international shipping centre capable of allocating resources for global shipping factors. This study considers global container shipping and shipping service networks as research objects to examine the node status and connection directions of Shanghai in these two networks. It also identifies the comparative advantages and weaknesses of Shanghai and proposes countermeasures and suggestions. The results show that Shanghai ranks high in the global container shipping network and is a sub-centre of the Busan system. Shanghai performs well in the mid-to-low-end shipping service industry in the shipping service network; however, a clear gap exists in the high-end service industry between Shanghai and European port cities. Thus, Shanghai should vigorously implement an international development strategy, actively promote a coordinated development strategy between ports, and integrate the construction of the shipping centre with that of financial and technological innovation centres.

Port State Control Inspections under the Paris Memorandum of Understanding and Their Contribution to Maritime Safety: Additional Risk Classifications and Indicators Using Multivariate Techniques

Port State Control (PSC) inspections conducted under the Paris Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) agreement have become a crucial tool for maritime administrations in European Union countries to ensure compliance with international maritime safety standards by ships entering their ports. This paper analyses all PSC inspections conducted in 10 major European ports belonging to the Paris MoU between 2012 and 2019. For its study, a multivariate HJ-Biplot statistical analysis is carried out, which facilitates the interpretation and understanding of the underlying relationships in a multivariate data set by representing a synthesis of the data on a factorial plane, with an interpretation that is very intuitive and accessible for readers from various fields. Applying this method with ship characteristics as explanatory variables, several classifications were derived. These classifications align with the annual performance lists published by the Paris MoU and the International Association of Classification Societies list, suggesting that this method could serve as a reliable classification approach. It provides maritime authorities with an additional indicator of a ship’s risk profile, aiding in the prioritising of inspections. The method also effectively categorises ports and types of ships used for cargo transport, offering insights into the specific maritime traffic each port experiences. Furthermore, this study identifies characteristics associated with substandard ships, which is a primary objective of PSC inspections. Beyond revealing these traits, this research underscores the existence of several readily applicable techniques to enhance maritime safety and reduce the risk of ocean pollution.