European Mountain Regions Research Articles

Heavy metals in precipitation waters under conditions of varied anthropopressure in typical of European low mountain regions

The environment is a dynamic system, subject to change resulting from a variety of physico- chemical factors, such as temperature, pressure, pH, redox potential and human activity. The quantity and variety of these determinants cause the inflow of substances into individual environmental elements to vary in both time and space, as well as in terms of substance types and quantities. The energy and matter flow in the environment determines its integrity, which means that the processes occurring in one element of the environment affect the others. A certain measure of the energy and matter flow is the migration of chemical substances in various forms from one place to another. In a particular geographical space, under natural conditions, a specific level of balance between individual processes appears; in areas subject to anthropopressure, the correlations are different. In small areas, varying deposition volumes and chemism of precipitation waters which reach the substratum directly can both be observed. The study area is similar in terms of geological origins as well as morphological, structural and physico-chemical properties, and is typical of European low mountain regions. A qualitative and quantitative study of wet atmospheric precipitation was conducted between February 2009 and May 2011 in the Bobrza river catchment in the Holy Cross (Świetokrzyskie) Mountains (Poland), at three sampling sites of varying land development and distance from sources of various acidic-alkaline emissions. Field and laboratory work was conducted over 29 months, from February 2009 to May 2011. Atmospheric precipitation measurements were carried out in a continuous manner by means of a Hellman rain gauge (200cm 2 ). The collecting surface was placed at ground level (0m AGL). The application of a collecting funnel and an adequately prepared polyethylene collecting can in the rain gauge enabled the measurement of precipitation volume and water sampling for chemical analyses. In order to prevent mineral soil particles and organic matter from entering the rain gauge, the device was placed in a pit, which was - for safety reasons - covered with a grid of appropriate single net-mesh diameter. The study covered metals of Fe, Cd, Cr, Al and Mn, ions of Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , K + , NH4 + , Cl - , F - , NO3 - , SO4 2- and PO4 3- as well as the pH and conductivity. Basing on the conducted analyses, a characteristics of ion deposition on soil surface were developed. In order to interpret the obtained results, the neutralising potential (NP), the acidifying potential (AP) and the acid neutralising capacity (ANCaq) indices were used, together with molar or mass proportions of the ions. The study results show a clear boundary between the northern and southern parts of the study area. Both regularities and disorders in inter-ion relationships, originating from the introduction into the air of pollution due to human activity (acidification or alkalisation), were observed.

Sustainable Land-use Practices in European Mountain Regions under Global Change: an Integrated Research Approach

Huber, R., H. Bugmann, A. Buttler, and A. Rigling. 2013. Sustainable land-use practices in European mountain regions under global change: an integrated research approach. Ecology and Society 18(3): 37. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05375-180337

Sustainable Land Use in Mountain Regions Under Global Change: Synthesis Across Scales and Disciplines

Huber, R., A. Rigling, P. Bebi, F. S. Brand, S. Briner, A. Buttler, C. Elkin, F. Gillet, A. Grêt-Regamey, C. Hirschi, H. Lischke, R. W. Scholz, R. Seidl, T. Spiegelberger, A. Walz, W. Zimmermann, and H. Bugmann. 2013. Sustainable land use in mountain regions under global change: synthesis across scales and disciplines. Ecology and Society 18(3): 36. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05499-180336

‘Bringing the Alps to the City’: Early Indoor Winter Sports Events in the Modern City of the Twentieth Century

There is a close link between urbanisation and the rise of sports. However, one usually does not associate winter sports with cities. By the late 1880s winter sports, especially skiing, had become popular in European and American mountain regions. During that time some winter sports activities were introduced, mainly for entertainment, to urban areas. The big ice palaces in Russia and North America, where ice skating events were the main focus, are amongst the best examples. It was some decades later that even skiing and other winter sports were transferred to various metropolises of the world. Sources show that in 1927 a first indoor ski palace on artificial snow was opened in Vienna; a few years later similar winter sport spectacles took place in Paris and London; Boston and New York followed shortly after. Parallel to this phenomenon the film industry, which developed at about the same time, also helped spread the white sport to urban consciousness. This paper focuses on the establishment of urban winter sports events. The German sociologist Gerhard Schulze's theory on the Erlebnisgesellschaft shall be the theoretical frame.

Increase of myocardial performance by Rhodiola–ethanol extract in diabetic rats

Ethno pharmacological relevanceRhodiola rosea (also known as golden root or roseroot) is a perennial plant of the Crassulaceae family that grows in the Arctic and in the mountainous regions of Europe, Asia, and North America. The rhizome and roots of this plant have been long used as traditional medicine in Eastern Europe and Asia for enhancing physical and mental performance. Aim of the studyThe present study is designed to investigate the cardiac action of Rhodiola–ethanol extract in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (STZ-diabetic rats) with heart failure. Materials and methodsDiabetes was induced in Wistar rats by injection of streptozotocin. We measured the changes of body weight, water intake, and food intake in three groups of age-matched rats; the normal control received vehicle, STZ-diabetic rat received Rhodiola–ethanol extract or vehicle. Cardiac output, heart rate, blood pressure, and hemodynamic dP/dt in addition to plasma insulin and glucose level were also determined. The mRNA and protein levels of PPARδ were measured using real-time PCR and Western blotting, respectively. ResultsFood intake, water intake and blood glucose were raised in STZ-diabetic rats showing lower body weight and plasma insulin, as compared with the control. Also, cardiac output, heart rate, blood pressure and hemodynamic dP/dt were markedly reduced in STZ-diabetic rats indicating the heart failure physiologically. After a 21-day treatment with Rhodiola–ethanol extract, cardiac output was raised in STZ-rats while the diabetic parameters were not modified. The PPARδ expression of both mRNA and protein was markedly elevated in the heart of STZ-rats receiving treatment with Rhodiola–ethanol extract. Also, the increased phosphorylation level of cardiac troponin-I was restored by this treatment with Rhodiola–ethanol extract. Otherwise, increase of cardiac output by Rhodiola–ethanol extract was blocked by antagonist of PPARδ in STZ-diabetic rats. ConclusionsOur results suggest that ethanol extract of Rhodiola has an ability to increase the cardiac output in STZ-diabetic rats showing heart failure. Also, increase of PPAR-δ is responsible for this action of Rodiola–ethanol extract.

Forest line changes after 1960 in a Norwegian mountain region – implications for the future

Mountain treelines can be seen as boundaries between two vegetation zones – the alpine and subalpine zones – and function as an indicator of ecosystem change. Interpreting factors leading to changes in mountains includes disturbance from human resource use and climate as important factors. The article shows that forest line changes in eastern Jotunheimen, a mountain region in southern Norway, can be related to changes in livestock grazing pressure between the 1960s and 2002. In contrast to other European mountain regions, highly relevant climate variables such as the triterm (the summer months) have not changed in the studied region. Therefore, land-use change is considered the main driver for the forest line shifts observed in the region. However, the predicted climate warming, together with continued trends of decreasing and abandoned free-range grazing of livestock will cause further forest expansion above the present forest lines also in the eastern Jotunheimen mountain range.

Mountain hazards: reducing vulnerability by adapted building design

Despite the long tradition of technical mitigation on a catchment scale in European mountain regions, losses due to mountain hazards are still considerably high in number and monetary loss. Therefore, the concept of technical mitigation had been supplemented by land-use planning and, more recently, local structural protection. Local structural protection includes measures directly implemented at or adjacent to endangered objects, and has proven to be particularly cost-effective with respect to integral risk management strategies. However, the effect of local structural protection in reducing the vulnerability of elements at risk, and the associated consequences with respect to a reduction of structural vulnerability have not been quantified so far. Moreover, there is a particular gap in quantifying the expenditures necessary for local structural protection measures. Therefore, a prototype of residential building adapted to mountain hazards is presented in this study. This prototype is equipped with various constructional elements to resist the incurring impact forces, i.e., of fluvial sediment transport and of snow avalanches. According to possible design loads emerging from these hazard processes, the constructive design necessary is presented, and the amount of additional costs required for such an adaptation is presented. By comparing these costs with quantitative loss data it is shown that adapted building design is particularly effective to reduce the consequences of low-magnitude, high-frequency events in mountain regions.

Stakeholder perceptions of grassland ecosystem services in relation to knowledge on soil fertility and biodiversity

The concept of ecosystem services is increasingly being used by scientists and policy makers. However, most studies in this area have focussed on factors that regulate ecosystem functions (i.e. the potential to deliver ecosystem services) or the supply of ecosystem services. In contrast, demand for ecosystem services (i.e. the needs of beneficiaries) or understanding of the concept and the relative ranking of different ecosystem services by beneficiaries has received limited attention. The aim of this study was to identify in three European mountain regions the ecosystem services of grassland that different stakeholders identify (which ecosystem services for whom), the relative rankings of these ecosystem services, and how stakeholders perceive the provision of these ecosystem services to be related to agricultural activities. We found differences: (1) between farmers’ perceptions of ecosystem services across regions and (2) within regions, between knowledge of ecosystem services gained by regional experts through education and farmers’ local field-based knowledge. Nevertheless, we identified a common set of ecosystem services that were considered important by stakeholders across the three regions, including soil stability, water quantity and quality, forage quality, conservation of botanical diversity, aesthetics and recreation (for regional experts), and forage quantity and aesthetic (for local farmers). We observed two contrasting stakeholder representations of the effects of agricultural management on ecosystem services delivery, one negative and the other positive (considering low to medium management intensity). These representations were determined by stakeholders’ perceptions of the relationships between soil fertility and biodiversity. Overall, differences in perceptions highlighted in this study show that practitioners, policy makers and researchers should be more explicit in their uses of the ecosystem services concept in order to be correctly understood and to foster improved communication among stakeholders.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in lake sediments from the High Tatras

European alpine lake systems are used as indicators of air quality over the continent. Preliminary data showed high polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) loads in the High Tatras (Eastern Europe) in comparison to other mountain regions. Here, insight on the spatial distribution of PAH is provided from analysis of top-core sediments of 27 alpine lakes distributed along the High Tatras. Top-core sediment concentrations were higher than those in deep-cores, and they were higher than those observed in other European high mountain regions. The PAH profiles were uniform and comparable to those observed in aerosols and snow, indicating that atmospheric deposition was the predominant PAH input pathway to the lakes. Good agreement between estimated atmospheric deposition and sedimentation fluxes was observed. However, in several lakes in the western range higher sediment fluxes may correspond to higher PAH depositions levels. The higher concentrations may also reflect inputs from potential emission source areas.

Balancing Forest-Regeneration Probabilities and Maintenance Costs in Dry Grasslands of High Conservation Priority

Abandonment of agricultural land has resulted in forest regeneration in species-rich dry grasslands across European mountain regions and threatens conservation efforts in this vegetation type. To support national conservation strategies, we used a site-selection algorithm (MARXAN) to find optimum sets of floristic regions (reporting units) that contain grasslands of high conservation priority. We sought optimum sets that would accommodate 136 important dry-grassland species and that would minimize forest regeneration and costs of management needed to forestall predicted forest regeneration. We did not consider other conservation elements of dry grasslands, such as animal species richness, cultural heritage, and changes due to climate change. Optimal sets that included 95-100% of the dry grassland species encompassed an average of 56-59 floristic regions (standard deviation, SD 5). This is about 15% of approximately 400 floristic regions that contain dry-grassland sites and translates to 4800-5300 ha of dry grassland out of a total of approximately 23,000 ha for the entire study area. Projected costs to manage the grasslands in these optimum sets ranged from CHF (Swiss francs) 5.2 to 6.0 million/year. This is only 15-20% of the current total estimated cost of approximately CHF30-45 million/year required if all dry grasslands were to be protected. The grasslands of the optimal sets may be viewed as core sites in a national conservation strategy.

Geomorphology and hydrochemistry of 12 Alpine lakes in the Gran Paradiso National Park, Italy

Twelve Alpine lakes located in the Gran Paradiso National Park, in the western Italian Alps, were sampled during the ice free period in 2008 and analysed for the main morphological, chemical and physical variables in relation to the characteristics of their watershed, with the aim to create a reference database for present and future ecological studies and to support conservation politics with scientific data. The results highlighted that weathering process and direct precipitation input are the main factors determining the hydrochemistry of the studied lakes; moreover the morphological characteristics highly affects the physical properties of the lakes starting from stratification process. The acidification status, the atmospheric input of N compounds and the supply of nutrients were considered in detail. The studied lakes seem to be well preserved by acidification risk. Comparing data from Gran Paradiso National Park with data from European mountain regions ranging in N deposition rates, allows to consider long range anthropogenic impact: the detection of relative low Total Nitrogen (TN) concentration is not necessarily a synonym of a soft impact of long range pollutants, being the final nitrogen concentration dependent from retention process, closely related to catchment characteristics, besides N deposition rates; moreover the dominance of Inorganic Nitrogen (IN) on Organic Nitrogen (ON) highlights that the lakes are interested by N deposition and probably by long range transport of pollutants produced in the urbanized area surrounding the massif. However the Gran Paradiso National Park area is by far less affected by atmospheric pollutants than other Alpine regions, as the Central Alps. Total Phosphorus (TP) concentration in Gran Paradiso lakes (1-13 μg L-1, mean level = 4 μg L-1) is an index of oligotrophic and ultraoligotrophic conditions and according to Redfield's ratio phosphorus is mainly the phytoplankton growth limiting element, assuming a key role in biological processes and food-web dynamics; the high TN:TP ratio values detected in the studied lakes reflects the low N retention capacity of alpine sparse vegetation by comparison with prairies or forests.

Diversity and distribution patterns of benthic invertebrates along alpine gradients. A study of remote European freshwater lakes

Invertebrates inhabiting alpine water bodies are sensitive to environmental variability and lake faunal communities can therefore be important indicators of long-range airborne pollution, climate change and other human impacts. Information about the trophic structure and species composition of alpine lake ecosystems over space and time should therefore give important insights into environmental change effects.To explore the sensitivity of the faunal communities to environmental variability at local and regional scales we sampled biological and environmental variables from alpine lakes in seven dif- ferent alpine lake districts in six European mountain regions. The fauna of the lakes was mainly com-

Biological activity of aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligands in sediments from remote European lakes

Summary1. Sediment extracts from 63 European remote lakes were tested for the presence of ligands of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), using a yeast‐based bioassay. The lakes belong to different European mountain regions in Central Norway, Scotland, Piedmont (Italy), Tyrol (Austria and Italy) and the Julian Alps (Slovenia).2. AhR ligand activity varied about 40‐fold among the examined lakes, with Scotland having the highest proportion of lakes with high AhR ligand activity, whereas samples with low AhR ligand activity predominate in the Julian Alps.3. AhR ligand activity in sediment samples correlated with the concentration of several environmentally relevant compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, hexachlorobenzene and several polychlorobiphenyl ether congeners. These correlations suggest an anthropogenic origin for the detected AhR ligands, rather than being generated from natural processes.4. We conclude that pollutants deposited in remote lakes by atmospheric processes are active AhR ligands at the concentrations found in these lakes. Given the high toxicity associated with ectopic activation of AhR in different animal systems, this activity may represent a significant risk for the exposed fauna.

Threatened and stressed mountain lakes of Europe: Assessment and progress

Mountain regions are cold environments that are hostile to human occupation and widely regarded as places where the air is clean, water is pure and ecosystems are pristine. Yet many mountain regions, especially in Europe, are far from pristine. In the 1980s, research showed that mountain lakes were especially vulnerable to acid deposition and sediment core studies at many sites demonstrated that some mountain lakes had become acidified over the course of the last century. Since then, studies of the water chemistry, biology and history of lakes across the different European mountain regions have increased our understanding of the processes within these systems, their ecological condition and the threats facing them. These studies have demonstrated that: i) gradients of sulphur, nitrogen, metals and persistent organic pollutant deposition occur from relatively uncontaminated regions in Spain and Central Norway to regions of heavy pollution loading in central and eastern Europe;ii) nitrate and sulphate concentrations in lake water reflect the gradients in atmospheric deposition;iii) concentrations of mercury, lead and cadmium in fish tissue show marked regional differences;iv) the spatial pattern of organochlorine concentrations in fish and in sediments follow the pattern for other pollutants, although there is also good evidence for the selective cold trapping of some compounds both at high latitudes and at high altitudes;v) fish suffer physiological stress in mountain lake-water of low ionic strength;vi) climate change over the last century is likely to have induced significant changes in lake ice-cover and water column stratification and mixing in some regions and these have in turn influenced the structure and productivity of biological communities; This paper provides a review of the research undertaken on European mountain lakes over the past 30 years. In particular, it highlights the stresses faced by these vulnerable systems and the effects these have had, continue to have, and are likely to have on mountain lake ecosystems in future.

Precipitation climatology over Mediterranean Basin from ten years of TRMM measurements

Abstract. Climatological features of mesoscale rain activities over the Mediterranean region between 5° W–40° E and 28° N–48° N are examined using the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) 3B42 and 2A25 rain products. The 3B42 rainrates at 3-hourly, 0.25°×0.25° spatial resolution for the last 10 years (January 1998 to July 2007) are used to form and analyze the 5-day mean and monthly mean climatology of rainfall. Results show considerable regional and seasonal differences of rainfall over the Mediterranean Region. The maximum rainfall (3–5 mm day−1) occurs over the mountain regions of Europe, while the minimum rainfall is observed over North Africa (~0.5 mm day−1). The main rainy season over the Mediterranean Sea extends from October to March, with maximum rainfall occurring during November–December. Over the Mediterranean Sea, an average rainrate of ~1–2 mm day−1 is observed, but during the rainy season there is 20% larger rainfall over the western Mediterranean Sea than that over the eastern Mediterranean Sea. During the rainy season, mesoscale rain systems generally propagate from west to east and from north to south over the Mediterranean region, likely to be associated with Mediterranean cyclonic disturbances resulting from interactions among large-scale circulation, orography, and land-sea temperature contrast.

Plant diversity differs between young and old mesic meadows in a central European low mountain region

Effects of habitat age on species diversity are an important issue in plant conservation. However, effects of habitat age on mesic meadows are poorly investigated. Here we compare plant species richness between old mesic meadows (>150 years) and young mesic meadows (40–60 years) in a low mountain region (Thuringian Forest, Germany). Species richness and species traits were determined in 20 old and 20 young mountain meadows (alliances Polygono-Trisetion, Violion caninae) which were defined using historical maps and compared using species indicator analysis and ANOVA. Additionally we quantified changes in the extent of the area of young and old meadows using a Geographical Information System. Species richness of vascular plants on 20 m 2 plots was significantly higher in old than in young meadows, while evenness did not differ between young and old meadows. Endangered plant species were restricted to old meadows, which also contained a higher proportion of habitat specialists. The terminal velocity index of seeds was lower and seed weight was higher in old meadows, indicating a lower importance of wind dispersal in old meadows. This was also indicated by a higher proportion of species with seeds adapted to wind dispersal in young meadows. In old meadows there was a higher proportion of species with seeds adapted to ant dispersal and a lower proportion of species with seeds adapted to animal dispersal. In a representative sub-area of the study region, the total area of meadows has increased by 88% during the 20th century due to transformation of arable fields into meadows, while the area of old meadows declined by 36% during the same time due to abandonment and afforestation. We conclude that the age of the habitat is highly important in order to maintain plant diversity of mesic meadows. Therefore, higher priority should be given to old meadows.

Cable logging opportunities for firewood in Calabrian forests

Cable cranes are among the most important means of yarding and transporting timber and they are being increasingly used in the mountainous regions of Europe. However, their in Southern Italy remains limited, particularly in forests used for firewood production, where they are hardly employed. Forests in Southern Italy are mainly located in steeply sloping mountainous areas where ground-based wood extraction is still the most common harvesting technique employed. The productivity of different cable cranes was assessed to establish if these machines could be recommended for efficient harvesting in the forest conditions in Southern Italy. The cable cranes tested were the Greifenberg TG 700, the Koller K300 and the Greifenberg VSG 2000; the tests were carried out in areas of Calabria (Southern Italy) where site features and forest management parameters differed. A time and motion study showed that the productivity of cable cranes tested was satisfactory although there are a number of organisational aspects that could be improved in order to fully exploit their potential.

Reconstructing glacier-based climates of LGM Europe and Russia – Part 2: A dataset of LGM precipitation/temperature relations derived from degree-day modelling of palaeo glaciers

Abstract. The study of European and Russian Quaternary glacial-geological evidence during the last 15 years has generated sufficient data to use former glacial extent as a proxy for Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) climate (precipitation and temperature) at a continental scale. Utilisation of such data is relevant for two reasons. First, continental to global scale proxy reconstructions of past climate are an important tool in the assessment of retrospective general circulation model (GCM) simulations. Second, the development of a multi-proxy approach will result in a more robust proxy based climate signal. A new and independent dataset of 36 LGM precipitation and temperature relationships derived from European and Russian mountain regions is presented in this paper. A simple glacier-climate model was used to establish the optimum LGM precipitation/temperature conditions for each region from a suite of over 4000 model climates using the principle of zero cumulative mass balance. Clear regional trends are present in the reconstructed LGM precipitation and temperature curves; assuming present precipitation temperature anomalies north of the Alps are 2°C and 5°C larger than those in the western and eastern Mediterranean, respectively. In Russia the model results suggest that the climates in both the Arctic Urals and Puterana Plateau were probably conducive to the existence of small mountain glaciers at the LGM.

Local protection against mountain hazards – state of the art and future needs

Abstract. During the last decades, settlement activities increased in European mountain regions. Due to the scarceness of areas suitable for development, residential estates were extended into areas endangered by natural hazards such as mass movements. These settlements generally show a considerable vulnerability to tangible assets. Integral risk management strategies to reduce the vulnerability to tangible assets are presented for the assessment of such endangered areas. Conventional mitigation and local structural measures are discussed with respect to the necessary delimitation of endangered areas, the preparedness of people and possible financial prevention. According to different natural hazard processes (flash floods with and without bedload transport, debris flows, land slides, rock falls and avalanches) and various structural elements of buildings, a catalogue of local structural measures is presented with respect to occurring process impacts and protection objectives. Thereby, different local structural measures are classified and recommended according to a possible implementation for newly-erected buildings and for upgrading existing buildings, respectively. Based on these recommendations, future needs for a sustainable and comprehensive reduction of risk in settlement areas endangered by mass movements are outlined. Above all, this includes a prescription of building codes and the re-introduction of an obligatory final inspection of buildings.

Glacial history of Saxifraga paniculata (Saxifragaceae): molecular biogeography of a disjunct arctic-alpine species from Europe and North America

The molecular biogeography of the disjunctly distributed and morphologically highly variable species Saxifraga paniculata Mill. was analysed using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and chloroplast microsatellites. The study comprised 77 samples from mountain regions in Europe and North America throughout the complete range of distribution. AFLP data revealed clear genetic differentiation between samples from the Arctic, the Caucasus, and the eastern European mountains. Samples from the Alps were divided into two groups. One group clustered with the samples from central Europe and the Pyrenees, whereas another group with individuals from southern Norway. AFLP diversity was lowest in the Arctic and highest in the Alps. Chloroplast microsatellite analysis revealed eight haplotypes but no unequivocal phylogeographical pattern. However, haplotype diversity was highest in the Alps and central Europe whereas, in the Arctic, only few widespread haplotypes could be found. The results indicate in situ survival of S. paniculata in the Caucasus, the eastern European mountains, and the Alps. The Arctic has presumably been colonized postglacially from North American refugia south of the ice shield. Southern Norway and the Pyrenees have most likely been colonized from two phylogeographically different groups in the Alps. The origin of the central European samples remains ambiguous. In situ survival seems to be as possible as several postglacial recolonization events from the Alps. The obtained molecular data clearly support the subdivision of S. paniculata into three subspecies: ssp. cartilaginea from the Caucasus, ssp. laestadii from northern Norway, Iceland, and North America, and ssp. paniculata from the other geographical regions.