European High Mountain Research Articles

Biogeographical and evolutionary importance of the European high mountain systems

Europe is characterised by several high mountain systems dominating major parts of its area, and these structures have strongly influenced the evolution of taxa. For species now restricted to these high mountain systems, characteristic biogeographical patterns of differentiation exist. (i) Many local endemics are found in most of the European high mountain systems especially in the Alps and the more geographically peripheral regions of Europe. Populations isolated in these peripheral mountain ranges often have strongly differentiated endemic genetic lineages, which survived and evolved in the vicinity of these mountain areas over long time periods. (ii) Populations of taxa with wide distributions in the Alps often have two or more genetic lineages, which in some cases even have the status of cryptic species. In many cases, these lineages are the results of several centres of glacial survival in the perialpine areas. Similar patterns also apply to the other geographically extended European high mountain systems, especially the Pyrenees and Carpathians. (iii) Populations from adjoining high mountain systems often show similar genetic lineages, a phenomenon best explained by postglacial retreat to these mountains from one single differentiation centre between them. (iv) The populations of a number of species show gradients of genetic diversity from a genetically richer East to a poorer West. This might indicate better glacial survival conditions for this biogeographical group of species in the more eastern parts of Europe.

Causes of the genetic architecture of south-west European high mountain disjuncts

Background: Postglacial climatic warming in south-western Europe and the retreat of cold-adapted species into higher elevations, starting in the Sierra Nevada and proceeding northwards to the Pyrenees and Alps, should have resulted in a pattern of ‘successive vicariance’. Alternatively, long-distance dispersal might explain the extant distribution pattern of mountain species in this region. Aims: Here, we report an investigation of two alpine plants, Saxifraga oppositifolia and S. stellaris, which co-occur in the Sierra Nevada, the Pyrenees, and the south-western Alps/Massif Central. Our aim was to distinguish between (successive) vicariance and long-distance dispersal as alternative explanations for their present-day geographical distribution across these high mountain ranges. The patterns found in these two species were compared to those of four other mountain species previously studied by us. Methods: Samples of 378 individuals from 21 populations were surveyed for amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) variation. Results: We found that vicariance best explains the phylogeographic pattern of S. oppositifolia, while in S. stellaris, Sierra Nevada samples fell within the group of non-monophyletic Pyrenean populations. Together with genetic diversity evidence, this latter pattern is hypothesised to reflect incomplete lineage sorting following range fragmentation rather than long-distance dispersal from the Pyrenees to the Sierra Nevada. Additionally, in S. stellaris, a distinct genetic cluster from the Massif Central was observed. Levels of among-region and among-population differentiation were higher in S. stellaris than in S. oppositifolia. This may be taken as evidence of a more strongly disrupted glacial distribution of the former species, and also accords with its preference for more specialised and patchily distributed habitats when compared to those of the ‘pioneering’ S. oppositifolia. Conclusions: In conjunction with our previous investigation, we conclude that vicariance is the predominant, but not sole process shaping the genetic architecture of south-west European high mountain disjuncts. Furthermore, ‘successive vicariance’ was only observed in three previously studied species but not in the two Saxifrages analysed here, possibly due to the persistence of past patterns of population substructuring.

Arcyptera fusca and Arcyptera tornosi repetitive DNA families: whole‐comparative genomic hybridization (W‐CGH) as a novel approach to the study of satellite DNA libraries

Whole-comparative genomic hybridization (W-CGH) has been used to exemplify a simple methodology which allows identifying and mapping whole genome differences for highly repetitive DNA sequences between two related species of unknown genomic background. The use of this technique to the species binomy Arcyptera fusca/Arcyptera tornosi has allowed the identification of different DNA families mainly concentrated within the para-/peri-centromeric and distal heterochromatic regions of different chromosomes, which are differentially expanded in both genomes. Additionally, W-CGH allowed chromosome mapping of particular euchromatic regions immersed in the chromosome arms which have been affected by processes of DNA amplification and losses. A molecular approach was also conducted to analyse satellite DNA families in these species. We have found three different families showing an unequal representation in both species. Two of these families showed a centromeric location (EcoRV-390CEN and Sau3A-419CEN), whereas the last one was located at distal heterochromatic regions (Sau3A-197TEL). As A. fusca is a widely distributed species represented in most European high mountains, whereas A. tornosi is an endemic species represented in the Iberian Peninsula, the differences and resemblances reported here offer a good basis to support a close evolutionary relationship between both of the actually isolated species. Finally, W-CGH allowed identification of an asynchronic pattern of heterochromatin condensation through early prophase (characteristic in both species) which is uncommon or probably has been poorly analysed within classical early condensing chromosome domains through meiosis. The congruence of the obtained cytological and molecular results is analysed in light of the ancestral genome relationship between both species.

Altitudinal Gradients of PBDEs and PCBs in Fish from European High Mountain Lakes

A first case of temperature-dependent distribution of polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in remote areas is shown. Analysis of these compounds in fish from Pyrenean lakes distributed along an altitudinal transect shows higher concentrations at lower temperatures, as predicted in the global distillation model. Conversely, no temperature-dependent distribution is observed in a similar transect in the Tatra mountains (Central Europe) nor in fish from high mountain lakes distributed throughout Europe. The fish concentrations of polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) examined for comparison showed significant temperature correlations in all these studied lakes. Cold trapping of both PCBs and PBDEs concerned the less volatile congeners. In the Pyrenean lake transect the concentrations of PCBs and PBDEs in fish were correlated despite the distinct use of these compounds and their 40 year time lag of emissions to the environment. Thus, temperature effects have overcome these anthropogenic differences constituting at present the main process determining their distributions. These cases of distinct PBDEs and PCBs behavior in high mountains likely reflect early stages in the environmental distribution of the former since they have been under secondary redistribution processes over much shorter time than the latter.

European High Mountain (Alpine) Vegetation and its Suitability for Indicating Climate Change Impacts

European High Mountain (Alpine) Vegetation and its Suitability for Indicating Climate Change Impacts

The significance of European high mountain lakes in critical load distributions at the EMEP grid scale

The significance of European high mountain lakes in critical load distributions at the EMEP grid scale

The significance of European high mountain lakes in critical load distributions at the EMEP grid scale

The integrated assessment models that drive atmospheric pollutant emission reduction policies within Europe, under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, work at the scale of the EMEP grid (50 × 50 km). Critical loads are used to link anthropogenic deposition to adverse effects for individual ecosystems within each grid cell. The critical loads have two aspects, ecosystem area and the ecosystem specific critical load. The presence of highly acid-sensitive ecosystems within these grid cells can lead to very low critical loads of acidity which provide emission targets that are difficult to achieve: these cells are known as “binding grid squares”. Since mountain lakes are highly sensitive to environmental change, their inclusion in critical loads assessments might be expected to result in lower EMEP scale critical loads. The combination of mountain lakes data with those from other ecosystems already included in the integrated modelling shows unexpected results. The average accumulated exceedance of critical loads of acidity may increase with either the presence of significant mountain lake catchment areas within grid cells or the presence of highly acidified clusters of sites. These circumstances occur in only a small number of grid cells. Furthermore, the relatively low sensitivity of mountain lakes to acidification in some regions means that their inclusion in EMEP scale models would lead to a relaxation of emission abatement requirements because of an increase in the area of ecosystems not exceeding critical loads and a decrease in AAE. Hence the potential effects of the inclusion of mountain lake critical loads of acidity in EMEP scale models vary greatly on a regional basis. The assumption that mountain lakes data could increase the incidence of “binding grid squares” is found to be unlikely.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon composition in soils and sediments of high altitude lakes

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in lake sediments and nearby soils of two European high mountain regions, Pyrenees and Tatra, have been studied. Similar mixtures of parent PAH were observed in all cases, indicating predominance of airborne transported combustion products. Nevertheless, the composition of these atmospherically long-range transported PAH was better preserved in the superficial layers of soils than sediments. This difference points to significant PAH degradation process, e.g. during lake water column transport, before accumulation in the latter. Post-depositional transformation was also different in both types of environmental compartments. Thus, lake sediments exhibit higher preservation of the more labile PAH involving lower degree of post-depositional oxidation. However, they also show the formation of major amounts of perylene by diagenetic transformation in the deep sections. This compound is not formed in soils where downcore enrichments of phenanthrene are observed, probably as a consequence of diagenetic aromatization of diterpenoids.

Polybromodiphenyl ether flame retardants in fish from lakes in European high mountains and Greenland.

Individual polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were investigated in liver and muscle tissue of trout from 11 high mountain lakes in Europe and one in Greenland. Trouts in these lakes [brown trout (Salmo trutta), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus)] are important sentinel species because they are located in the top of the food chain and pollution can only reach these ecosystems by atmospheric transport. The major PBDE congeners were BDE 47 and BDE 99, followed by BDE 100, BDE 153, BDE 154, and BDE 28. These compounds were found in all the samples examined. Their average concentrations [110-1300 and 69-730 pg g(-1) wet weight (ww) in liver and muscle or 2400-40000 and 2900-41000 pg g(-1) lipid weight (lw), respectively] were in the lower range when compared with those of fish from other less remote locations. The highest levels of PBDEs in liver and muscle are found in Lochnagar, Scotland: 11000 and 1200 pg g(-1) ww, respectively (366 000 and 177000 pg g(-1) lw, respectively). Male specimens exhibited higher PBDE concentrations in liver than female. The concentrations of most PBDEs in liver were correlated with fish age (p < 0.01) and, inversely, with condition factor (p < 0.01). Muscle PBDE concentrations did not correlate with age, and only some congeners showed significant positive correlations with condition factor (p < 0.05). The main differences between species were found in the accumulation of the more abundant PBDEs, brook trout showing the highest concentrations in muscle and the lowest in liver. No correlation between the occurrence of these compounds in high mountain fish and altitude, latitude, or temperature was observed. This fact and the lack of correlation between muscle concentrations and age suggest that the fluxes of PBDEs arriving at high mountain lakes are still not constant. In view of the present use of these compounds, they are probably increasing.

The Temporal Course of Quaternary Diversification in the European High Mountain EndemicPrimulasect.Auricula(Primulaceae)

Primula sect. Auricula is one of only a few endemics of the European high mountains with a comparatively large number of species. We explored the section’s geographical origin, time of origin, and temporal course of diversification via parsimony, genetic distance, and lineages‐through‐time analyses based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA. The taxa analyzed included 52 individuals representing all 25 species of the section, representatives of seven other European, Asian, and/or North American sections of the genus, and two species of Douglasia. We present evidence that sect. Auricula likely originated from an Asian ancestor at the end of the Late Tertiary, followed by its primary diversification into an “eastern” and “western” lineage at the Plio‐/Pleistocene boundary. Comparison with a constant rates null model of stochastic diversification‐extinction (birth‐death) demonstrates that diversification has proceeded nonrandomly through Quaternary times in both lineages. They display a pulse of speciation events occurring soon after their origin and relatively few such events occurring since. This pattern contrasts with the predictions of the Late Pleistocene origins hypothesis and implies unpredictability of the evolutionary response of sect. Auricula to the recurrent abiotic conditions of the Quaternary glacial‐interglacial cycles. We conclude that it is not necessary to invoke an increase in extinction rate. Rather, the observed slowdown of interspecific (and intraspecific) diversification in sect. Auricula toward the present likely results from a decrease in diversification rate due to ecological and/or geographical space‐filling processes.

Persistent organochlorine compounds in soils and sediments of European high altitude mountain lakes

The composition of persistent organochlorine compounds (OC) in soils and sediments from two high altitude European mountain lakes, Redon in the Pyrenees and Ladove in the Tatra mountains, has been studied. Sediment cores from two additional lakes in the Tatra mountains, Starolesnianske Pleso and Dlugi Staw, have also been examined. DDTs (1.7–13 ng g −1) were the most abundant OC in soils followed by total polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs; 0.41–1.5 ng g −1) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB; 0.15–0.91 ng g −1). In sediments, the dominant OC were also DDTs (3.3–28 ng g −1) and PCBs (2.3–15 ng g −1). These concentrations are low, involving absence of major pollution sources in these high mountain regions. The downcore OC profiles in soils and sediments were similar but higher concentrations and steeper vertical gradients were observed in the latter. Radiometric determinations showed absence of significant OC transport from catchment to lake. The sediment–soil difference points therefore to a better retention of the OC load in sediments than soils which may be related to the low temperatures that are currently encountered at the bottom of the lake water column and the depletion of sediment bioturbation in these cold environments. Significant qualitative changes in the soil PCB distributions are observed downcore. These involve a dominance of the high molecular weight congeners in the top core sections and those of lower weight (i.e. less chlorinated) in the bottom. Anaerobic dechlorination of higher molecular weight congeners occurring in microsites, e.g. as observed in flooded or poorly drained soils, could be responsible for these changes. This process could be concurrent to bioturbation.

Spatial and temporal patterns in the evolution of the flora of the European Alpine System

AbstractThis paper presents a perspective of how phylogenetic and phylogeographic hypotheses, based on nuclear DNA sequence variation (ITS) or amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs), can provide insights into the origin and evolution of the European high mountain flora. We focus on a diversity of unrelated herbaceous plant taxa that are broadly co‐distributed across the European Alpine System, representing different taxonomic levels, and having either Mediterranean or Asian affinities (i.e., Anthyllis montana, Pritzelago alpina, Globularia vs. Soldanella, and Primula sect. Auricula). Our observations highlight that all taxa investigated began to diversify at the beginning of the Pleistocene or well within this period. Some of those taxa apparently followed different routes and modes of immigration, thereby colonizing the European high mountains only once (either from the East or the West) or repeatedly (from the Mediterranean Basin). Our observations further suggest that several high mountain taxa originated from lowland forms. While supporting earlier views, such a trend has generally been associated with pre‐Quaternary rather than Pleistocene events. While several concordant patterns of (large‐scale) spatial genetic differentiation are identified across taxa, such similarities may have arisen at either clearly different or roughly similar times. Finally, most speciation events likely occurred in allopatry, though more comprehensive studies are required to evaluate the relative importance of non‐allopatric modes of speciation in the study area. We conclude that one major challenge to future evolutionary studies in European mountain plants is the accurate and reliable reconstruction of the tempo and mode of speciation across Quaternary time scales.

Evolution and Phylogeography of Arctic and Alpine Plants in Europe: Introduction

of the Arctic and alpine floras of has intrigued botanists for many decades. After formation of the European mountain system and world-wide climatic cooling during Late Tertiary, the evolution and radiation of the modem European arctic and alpine floras began. Geographic influences from central Asia, plus ancient Arctic and European elements, can be documented in plant diversity that now resides in our modem mountain systems. It has been shown that alloand autopolyploidy have been important evolutionary mechanisms. It has been hypothesized that recent evolutionary events have been driven by recurrent cycles of Quaternary glaciations, leading to formation of new species plus diversification (and divergence) of evolutionary lineages. Molecular methods offer new possibilities for studying the evolution of Arctic and alpine plant diversity in Europe. In particular, it is now possible to test hypotheses more effectively that deal with refugia, re-migrations, and survival on nunataks deriving from Pleistocene glaciations. In September 2002 at the Sixth International Congress of Systematic and Evolutionary Biology (ICSEB-VI) in Patras, Greece, a symposium entitled Evolution and Phylogeography of Arctic and Alpine Plants in Europe and organized by Andreas Tribsch and Tod F. Stuessy, was sponsored by the International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT). The aim of the symposium was to provide an overview of recent studies on the mountain floras of Europe, ranging from Arctic and subarctic regions to the southern mountains. Evolutionary patterns and inferred processes are explored that involve infraspecific phylogeographic diversification, evolution of alpine species, and radiation of genera. Five invited presentations, which are featured here, were complemented by three papers and several posters. The success of the symposium and the importance of the collective synthesis recommended that the main contributions be published together. This issue of Taxon features those five papers. Christian Brochmann and co-authors present an overview of several phylogeographical studies that tackle in the North Atlantic biota the challenging question: Glacial survival or tabula rasa? Phylogeographical evidence from several taxa distributed in the North Atlantic r gion suggest that it is not necessary to assume glacial survival on nunataks to explain extant patterns. Endemism and disjunct distributions correlate to a large degree. All endemic taxa (except one) are polyploid, suggesting recent, even postglacial, origin. The observed patterns are in strong contrast to those of more southern latitudes, where vicariance during the ice ages has lead to partly strong phylogeographical patterns, evolutionary divergence of lineages, and remarkable patterns of endemism also on the diploid level. The second paper by Hans Peter Comes and coauthors reviews phylogeographic data from several European mountain taxa, both within and between species, to provide insights on the origin and evolution of the European high mountain flora. Results are congruent with hypotheses of evolution of alpine species from lowland forms from Asia and the Mediterranean region in the late Tertiary and allopatric diversification during the Quaternary. Pablo Vargas in the third paper reviews phylogenetic data from several oro-mediterranean taxa and gives a preliminary synthesis with special emphasis on the Iberian peninsula. The data document that modes of speciation and colonization routes are different in all taxa. While some taxa diversified in the mountain ranges of the Iberian peninsula and immigrated to other parts of Europe, others immigrated to the Iberian mountains from the outside. In any case at least at the infraspecific level, diversifications are dated to the Quaternary ice ages. A comparison of patterns of endemism and phylogeographic patterns in the Alps with presumed Pleistocene refugia is central in the fourth paper by Andreas Tribsch and Peter Sch6nswetter. For the Eastern Alps available paleontological and paleoclimatological data suggest that in some regions cold-adapted plants survived the Pleistocene in situ, although large areas were glaciated. Potential glacial refugia are at the eastern and southern margin of the Alps, which remained widely unglaciated, but also within the ice shield on peripheral nunataks. Refugial areas are characterized by high levels

Stratosphere‐to‐troposphere transport: A model and method evaluation

During the EU‐project Influence of Stratosphere‐Troposphere exchange in a Changing Climate on Atmospheric Transport and Oxidation Capacity (STACCATO), a combined approach of a measurement network and numerical simulations was used to estimate the strength and frequency of stratosphere‐to‐troposphere transport (STT) events and their influence on tropospheric chemistry. Measurements of surface ozone, beryllium‐7, and beryllium‐10 concentrations and meteorological parameters at four European high mountain stations, as well as atmospheric profiles obtained by ozone soundings and a high‐resolution lidar, were carried out. In order to simulate STT events, seven different models have been applied by the STACCATO partners. These are two trajectory models (LAGRANTO and FLEXTRA), a Lagrangian transport model (FLEXPART), a Lagrangian chemistry‐transport model (STOCHEM), a Eulerian transport model (TM3), and two general circulation models (ECHAM4 and MA‐ECHAM4). In order to investigate the strengths and weaknesses of each of these models and to identify the reasons for their discrepancies, a detailed comparison with measured data is presented in this paper. These models provided fluxes and concentrations of a stratospheric tracer, as well as the vertical profiles of ozone and radionuclides for a stratospheric intrusion case study that occurred over Europe in the year 1996. The comparison of the model results with the measurement data and the satellite observations revealed that all the models captured the general behavior of the event. However, great differences were found in the intensity and spatial development of the simulated intrusion event.

Atmospherc deposition of organochlorine compounds to remote high mountain lakes of Europe.

Bulk deposition samples were taken near three mountain lakes located in the Pyrenees (Estany Redó), Alps (Gossenköllesee), and Caledonian Mountains (Ovre Neådalsvatn) for evaluation of the atmospheric deposition load of organochlorine compounds (OC), namely, polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and endosulfans, in the remote European high mountain areas. The compounds of present use in agriculture, namely, endosulfans and gamma-HCH, exhibit large differences in mean deposition fluxes between the three sites. They occur in large amounts in Estany Redó (340 and 430 ng m(-2) month(-1) for endosulfans and gamma-HCH, respectively), reflecting the impact of agricultural activities in southern Europe. This lake showed also the highest proportion of the more labile endosulfan isomers (alpha and beta = 82%) whereas only the most recalcitrant species, endosulfan sulfate, was found in Ovre Neådalsvatn. In contrast, the OC whose use is now banned exhibit a more uniform geographic distribution with deposition fluxes of 31-40, 30-100, and 1.4-15 ng m(-2) month(-1) for alpha-HCH, PCBs, and HCB. Both compounds of present and past use exhibit a clear seasonal pattern, with higher deposition in the warm periods, which is consistent with enhanced volatilization at higher temperatures. In the case of the agricultural pesticides it may also reflect higher use during application periods. The OC distributions in the atmospheric deposition of the three sites are rather uniform and highly enriched in compounds with volatilities larger than 0.0032 Pa. However, more than 90% of these compounds are not retained in the lake waters or sediments. Comparison of OC composition in atmospheric and sedimentary deposition evidences a selective trapping of the less volatile compounds. Trapping efficiencies increase at decreasing air temperatures of the lacustrine systems.

Mercury and Organochlorine Contamination in Brown Trout (Salmo Trutta) and Arctic Charr (Salvelinus Alpinus) from High Mountain Lakes in Europe and the Svalbard Archipelago

High concentration of Hg, less volatile PCB congeners and p,p′-DDE in Arctic charr from an arctic lake was mainly causedby biomagnification in the food chain where cannibalism was thedriving force. We suggest that low sediment fluxes of Hg, low net production of methyl mercury, and short food chains excludingpiscivory explain the low levels of Hg in the invertebrate feeding fish population in five European high mountain lakes.Concentrations of less volatile PCB congeners in insectivorous fish populations from the European high mountain lakes were mainly influenced by fish age and atmospheric deposition, indicated by the sediment inventory. Atmospheric deposition influenced by local sources may explain the higher concentrationsof pesticides (p,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE and γ-HCH) observedin fish from the Pyrenees compared to the other sites. Theconcentrations of Hg and organochlorines did not exceedthe guidelines for fish consumption, except for Hg levelsin the oldest fish from the arctic lake.

Vertical distribution of the alpine lepidoptera in the Carpathians and in the Balkan peninsula in relation to the zonation of the vegetation

The vertical distribution of arctic-alpine, alpine and Balkanic oreal species is discussed in connection with the vertical zonation of the vegetation, climatic conditions, substrate, type of alpine vegetation and co-occurrences of related species. Arctic-alpine species have mostly a Eurasian distribution and occur in the Arctic and in the alpine and subnival zones of the Central and Southern European high mountains with expressed glacial morphology and alpine vegetation. Alpine species are mostly European species and they are connected to the alpine and subnival zones of Central and South European high mountains. Balkanic oreal species are mostly southeast European species which in some cases occur locally in the southern parts of the Alps and Carpathians. Balkanic oreal species are most numerous at the timberline, preferred habitats being grasslands in the upper subalpine belts. The more diverse habitats of limestone mountains are usually home to a higher number of alpine (s. l.) species than that of the mountains consisting of acidic rocks. The apparent petrophily of several alpine and tundro-alpine species correlates with their sheltering behaviour. The vertical distribution of butterflies is probably influenced also by the competition of closely related species. Closely related species often show some types of habitat partitioning. Data on species numbers and vertical distribution of species are presented in the tables 1-4.

Phylogeny and quaternary history of the European montane/alpine endemicSoldanella(Primulaceae) based on ITS and AFLP variation

Soldanella contains 16 species of herbaceous perennials that are endemic to the central and south European high mountains. The genus is ecogeographically subdivided into forest/montane and alpine species. Evolutionary relationships and large-scale biogeographic patterns were inferred from parsimony analyses of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA, and genetic distance analyses based on amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. The ITS region proved useful for examining subgeneric relationships and testing hypotheses on genus-wide divergence times, whereas the AFLP markers were suitable for studying relationships among closely related taxa and biogeographic patterns of divergence. Neither ITS nor AFLP data supported sectional delimitations, particularly those related to the grouping of S. alpina (sect. Soldanella) with S. pusilla (sect. Tubiflores), which may be the result of hybridization. Additional results and conclusions drawn are (1) Soldanella is derived from an ancestor of Asian origin with a montane ecology; (2) estimates of divergence times suggest a late Quaternary origin of the genus; (3) alpine species of sect. Tubiflores diverged from within a paraphyletic sect. Soldanella of mainly montane species; (4) alpine and montane species of Soldanella experienced different cycles of range expansion and contraction during late Quaternary climatic changes, resulting in differential patterns of geographic distribution; and (5) AFLP divergence among montane species from eastern Europe was lower than between alpine species; we hypothesize that the latter differentiated in allopatric regions of expansion during glacials, while the former experienced secondary contact at lower elevations in more southern refugia.

Selective trapping of organochlorine compounds in mountain lakes of temperate areas.

The study of fish concentrations and sediment inventories in 19 European high mountain lakes (40-67 degrees N) shows that a fraction of organochlorine compounds (OCs), the less volatile compounds (LVC; subcooled liquid vapor pressure < or = 10(-2.5) Pa), are trapped in the higher locations. This general trend is not significantly influenced by possible local sources. Compound distribution is related to average air temperatures. The phase-change pseudoenthalpies calculated from the sediment inventories closely match the summed theoretical volatilization and dissolution enthalpies. This fractionation effect is responsible for the accumulation of high concentrations of the LVC, the more persistent and toxic according to literature data, in organisms inhabiting sites far from the locations of synthesis or use.

Persistent organic pollutants in snow from European high mountain areas

Snow cores were collected in the catchment area of five remote mountain lakes in Europe. They were analysed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), and organochlorine pesticides, namely DDTs, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH). PAH are found in higher amounts in the Tatra and Caledonian mountains, PCB are higher in the Alps and HCH are highest in the Alps and Pyrenees. The qualitative PAH distributions are dominated by low molecular weight compounds, phenanthrene being the most abundant PAH in all but in one site. These compounds also occur predominantly in the gas phase in the atmosphere. Their high abundance in the snowpack witness the occurrence of effective transfer mechanisms from gas to snow flakes. In Starolesnianske (Tatra mountains), a higher contribution of high molecular weight compounds is found. This site exhibits the highest snow PAH and suspended particulate levels. Transformation of the concentration values of these compounds into annual deposition rates and correction for catchment/lake area indicates that in Scandinavia and the Alps a large proportion of PAH incorporation is mediated by snowfallout whereas in the Tatra mountains snow deposition only accounts for a small fraction of the compounds stored in the lake sediments. Among organochlorine compounds, only PCB and HCH have been found above method detection limit in most of the samples. The PCB congener distributions changes significantly between sites, although a predominance of the less chlorinated congeners have generally been observed.