European Grouping Of Territorial Cooperation Research Articles

A Sport that Crosses Borders? Sociology of Cross-Border Sporting Exchanges: The Franco-German Example

ABSTRACT Using the example of sport, this article proposes to analyze border spaces as geographical and relational territories which are constructed and institutionalized by connecting national systems, public policies, stakeholders and representations. After a brief summary of the emergence of the sporting ideology promoting a competition area without borders, we will illustrate our argument based on our analysis of the Franco-German border area constituted as a European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC), i.e. the Strasbourg Ortenau Eurodistrict (EDSO). Examples of cooperation and shared sporting activities show that sport is an area of cross-border public action capable of creating Franco-German exchanges and raising the subject of bringing together residents from both sides of the Rhine. However, the field investigation also shows that creating events that bring different populations together is not enough for cultural exchanges to take place.

Organizational forms of cross-border cooperation of healthcare institutions

The article examines the organizational forms of cross-border cooperation of healthcare institutions. It has been established that currently, it is essential not only to restore the destroyed infrastructure of the health care system but also to restore the health of war victims, as well as the development of an appropriate health care system in connection with the integration of Ukraine into the European Union. It was determined that in such unclear and risky conditions, it is necessary to strengthen the ability to develop cross-border cooperation of healthcare institutions in Ukraine with the relevant healthcare institutions of neighboring states, member states of the European Union, namely: Slovakia, Poland, Hungary and Romania through various available organizational forms. It was established that there are various organizational forms through which health care institutions can implement cross-border cooperation. It was determined that the use of such a form for cooperation as a European grouping of territorial cooperation on the external border of the European Union will be useful both for the exchange of experience of neighboring health care institutions of the member states of the European Union and health care institutions of Ukraine, as well as for their possible effective participation in programs and implementation of cross-border cooperation projects, which would be aimed at the development of the health care sector in order to provide the population with affordable medical care. It was noted that because of the events taking place due to the full-scale invasion of the russian federation into Ukraine, namely the devastating consequences for the health of thousands of people, then it would be expedient to create such a European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation on the external border of the European Union with Ukraine. It was established when comparing the legislation of neighboring states, the member states of the European Union, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, and Romania, and analyzing the provisions of European Union regulatory acts regarding the activities of the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation, it appears that the list of participants of such a grouping may be somewhat wider.

Sobre as dinâmicas de cooperação e/ou competição na Eurorregião Galiza-Norte de Portugal

At present, relations between Galicia and Portugal seem to be characterised by a certain paradox. On the one hand, since the 1990s, the EU has promoted territorial cooperation through financial contributions (INTERREG) for the implementation of joint projects. Later, it provided a legal-institutional framework through the regulation of European Groupings of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC). This cooperation, especially crossborder cooperation, is conceived as a useful tool for improving the competitiveness of certain local and regional areas (barrier effect) and for bringing citizens closer together. At the same time, in the context of globalisation and the internationalisation of markets, states are practising a “best place policy”. They try to create the most suitable conditions within their borders for attracting investment and capital appreciation. In this way, competitive dynamics are generated between territories. This article aim to carry out an analysis of the dynamics of competition and cooperation that can be detected in the Galicia-North Portugal Euroregion. To this end, we will analyse the discourse of the main actors and agents involved in the productive processes in the Euroregion: politicians, business leaders and trade unions.

Resilience of Cross-border Cooperation in the Neisse-Nisa-Nysa Euroregion after the Pandemic: Bouncing In-between

ABSTRACT The article focuses on analyzing the impact of pandemic-induced border closures on cross-border integration within the Euroregion Neisse-Nisa-Nysa (ERN) encompassing parts of Germany, Czechia, and Poland. The restrictions on border crossings significantly disrupted the flow of people and goods across the ERN, affecting the daily lives of individuals residing on both sides (or all three sides) of the borders, particularly cross-border commuters. These individuals, referred to as borderlanders, found themselves disproportionately affected by the closures, with no representation to advocate for their interests. Consequently, the article highlights the key consequences of border closures and evaluates the initiatives undertaken by Euroregional stakeholders to enhance the resilience of cross-border cooperation within the ERN. In the concluding remarks, stakeholders involved in cross-border cooperation are urged to seize the opportunity and proactively advance their collaboration, as their interim unambiguous responses to the pandemic bounce in between advancing their cooperation and coming back to a pre-pandemic state. This can be achieved through the implementation of people-centric initiatives and a transition towards the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation, facilitating a more effective and sustainable cross-border partnership.

Il policy making dell’Euregio Tirolo-Alto Adige-Trentino. La politica europea di sviluppo regionale come opportunità di tutela e di coesione della minoranza linguistica ladina

Starting with a review of the history of the Ladins from the first post-war period onwards and of the current situation faced by the minority, an attempt is made to evaluate possible paths towards protection. These could favor the development and, above all, cohesion among Ladin communities by reaching across provincial and regional borders. This process could be helped by the recent Europeanist “fashion” of placing greater value on the status of minorities in the European Union because they represent an important cultural heritage. Hence several opportunities offered by the new European development and regional cohesion policies are examined, with special reference to the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC) Euregio Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino and its legal basis (EU Regulation 1082/2006). This policy-making body is endowed with political power and therefore able to draw up an action program which would include the organizations and institutions of the Ladin minority to a greater extent than before. This would contribute to improve the coordination of the various initiatives and the cohesion among members of the minority.

Prerequisites for the establishment and development of the legal status of the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation

Prerequisites for the establishment and development of the legal status of the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation

Legal status of cross-border cooperation bodies: regulatory framework

The article is devoted to the legal status research of the cross-border cooperation bodies, namely, the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation and the Аssociations of Euroregional cooperation as a institutional form of development of cross-border cooperation between Ukraine and the European Union have been analyzed. The basic acts of the national legislation regulating cross-border cooperation are analyzed.
 Basing of the analysis of the legislation of Ukraine in the field of cross-border cooperation, it has been stated that the Law of Ukraine «On cross-border cooperation» discloses the content of the category "body of cross-border cooperation but does not specify its definition. While the legal status, procedure of creation and activity of such bodies of cross-border cooperation as a union of EGTC and a AEC have been considered in detal.
 Taking the above-mentioned into consideration, it is necessary to analyze some aspects of the legal status of the EGTC and the AEC and to regulate the creation and activities of these institutions. In order to determine the legal status of the bodies of cross-border cooperation, the purpose of the activity of such legal entities, regulated by the law, plays an essential role, which lays down the basic foundations for the regulation of its legal status.
 Studying the legal regulation of the functioning of such forms of cross-border cooperation with the status of a legal entity as a European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation and Association of European Cooperation makes it possible to distinguish the characteristics of the body of cross-border cooperation as a whole, which distinguish this institutional form from another one and form the author’s definition of cross-border cooperation.

Legal forms of implementation of local initiatives in the field of interregional and cross-border cooperation

The main aspects of development the cross-boarder cooperation on a local and regional level are mentioned in this article. The definition of institutional forms is formed for the cross-boarder cooperation. The issue of cross-border cooperation between executive authorities and local self-government bodies was considered by concluding agreements and implementing joint projects, their roles and participation in such cross-border advisory bodies as intergovernmental commissions, councils and working groups with Hungary, the Republic of Poland, the Slovak Republic and Romania, and identified disadvantages in this area and suggested ways of their elimination.Integration processes and the formation of European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation with participation of Ukrainian and Hungarian self-government bodies are analyzed based on the Transcarpathian experience.Benefits and drawbacks of such an institution of cross-border cooperation as the Interregional Association "Carpathian Euroregion" were identified. Promising ways of its developments and transformation into a successful institution that can compete with other integration associations with the participation of the member states of the European Union are outlined and they were based on the analysis of the achievements and gains of the member countries during the joint 25-year activity.Simultaneously there is an inconsistency of the regulatory framework in the field of cross-boarder cooperation with international law including the inconsistency concerning the settlement of the creation of cross-boarder associations issues and suggestions of its improvement are presented.The topic of the policy of strategic planning of the state development is revealed, Ukraine participates in the existing international strategies and programs, as well as the formation of new concepts of macro-regional development of cross-border territories. In particular, opening new opportunities for Ukraine by chairing the EU Strategy for the Danube Region in 2022, deepening good neighborly relations with EU member states, complementing other initiatives such as the Carpathian Convention, cross-sectoral integration and broad stakeholder participation (national, regional, state and non-state) were involved in the process of creating a new EU Macro-Regional Strategy for the Carpathian region, etc.

Polsko-słowacka współpraca transgraniczna w regionie Tatr po 1918 roku

Polish-Slovak Trans-Frontier Cooperation in the Tatra Mountain Region after 1918The aim of this article is to analyse the most significant forms of trans-frontier cooperation in the Polish-Slovak borderland since 1918. The analysis is presented chronologically, divided into stages. Polish-Czechoslovak trans-frontier cooperation is discussed in the first part of the article, including such issues as the original protected common areas, for example the Pieniny Mountains, and the convention on tourism signed in 1925. Between 1945 and 1993, most of the national parks in the Tatra and Sub-Tatra regions were established, and in 1956 a second Polish-Czechoslovak convention on tourism was signed. The last part of the article discusses the Trans-Frontier Union of the Tatra Euroregion as an institutionalised form of Polish-Slovak cooperation today. The latest EU form of institutionalised trans-frontier cooperation, the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation, is also presented. The Euroregion’s final goal is to be converted into such a grouping in the near future.

Euroregion Tatry – nowa jakość współpracy polsko-słowackiej

The Tatra Euroregion – A New Quality in Polish-Slovak CooperationThe Tatra Euroregion is a non-governmental organization which has actively and professionally implemented various trans-frontier operations in the Polish- Slovak borderland for the last fifteen years. Since 1999, the Euroregion has managed European funds for the development of the Polish-Slovak borderland, enabling the implementation of the aims and goals for which it was established; they mainly include cooperation in social and cultural fields. This kind of cooperation is crucial for the borderland’s evolution. It provides an effective environment for economic growth and pro-ecological activities, which are still not sufficiently developed there. An important step in the modernization of the Tatra Euroregion is its strategy for 2008–2015. Plans for the near future include organizational transformation of the Euroregion into the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation.

Transnational water resource management in the Karawanken/Karavanke UNESCO Global Geopark

PURPOSE: The management of cross-border natural resources has been the focus of research in different disciplines. Nonetheless, beyond theoretical insights, empirical evidence of successful cross-border management or governance of natural resources is still limited, even in the European Union (EU), where a range of instruments are provided to foster cross-border cooperation between its Member States. This is where our paper departs, providing evidence from an example of cross-border cooperation between two Member States of the EU, Austria, and Slovenia, adding to the analytical framework to identify the drivers of successful cross-border cooperation. METHODOLOGY: Drawing from the example of the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC) Geopark Karawanken we evaluate the success factors and limits for transboundary cooperation encompassing different forms of cooperation. Furthermore, based on empirical evidence of workshops with local, regional, and national stakeholders, we investigate the potential of the EGTC organizational framework to provide for the successful cross-border management of water resources within the Geopark area. FINDINGS: Our analysis of project bundles, joint ventures/consortia, and EGTCs as possible forms of transboundary cooperation indicates that EGTCs have various advantages over looser forms of cooperation. Higher operational costs for the organization are contrasted by enhanced governance of transboundary activities, in accordance with legal frameworks and representation on both sides of the border. This increases acceptance and facilitates decision-making. Furthermore, it increases the potential for receiving funds in accordance with planned activities and regional requirements, while decreasing the individual financial risk for partners. The genesis of the Karawanken/Karavanke UNESCO Global Geopark (Geopark Karawanken) indicates that looser forms of organization, for instance, project bundles, enable stakeholders to get to know each other without great institutional effort. In the course of increasing integration, the organizational form can be more complex. The experience in developing transboundary, water management instruments shows that even in a more sophisticated form of cooperation like an EGTC, there are remaining obstacles in managing transboundary natural resources. Obstacles result from e.g., national laws and regulations, data standards, monitoring techniques, and soft factors such as language barriers. IMPLICATIONS: The example of the Geopark Karawanken shows that cross-border public authorities can be significantly supported with the introduction of an EGTC. Still, an EGTC tends to exclude private companies or societal actors because they cannot be active members of the Board. Exploring further options for closer integration of the private sector in Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) models may be useful to maintain the opportunity to include much-needed private skills and resources. The experience of the Geopark Karawanken suggests that EGTCs can and will be a significant form of organization in Europe for a number of activities, for example, in the field of cross-border resources, cross-border protected areas, or cross-border predicate regions. This will support the achievement of the goals of EU programs to face the climate and biodiversity crises through transnational agreements, e.g., the Green Deal or the Biodiversity Strategy. ORIGINALITY AND VALUE: This article provides a concise overview on transnational water resource management in the European Union in the context of an EGTC, and raises points for practitioners about potential challenges for the successful introduction of an EGTC. While the analysis of common experiences of various EGTCs could lead to the development of a European standard and guideline for the successful foundation of this territorial cohesion tool, this paper provides the first step, paving the road for future research.

Współpraca międzynarodowa i transgraniczna polskich uczelni w prawie i praktyce

The aim of the research was to identify conditions and forms of international and cross-border cooperation of Polish higher education institutions (HEIs). In order to achieve the goal, the formal-dogmatic method was applied, analyzing the literature on the subject, the law (mainly Polish law), as well as various statements and press releases. A request for public information was also used. The article was divided into three parts. The first one concerns the conditions of international and cross-border cooperation of Polish HEIs. The next part covers the forms of cooperation identified by the author, and the last one refers to the formula of the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation as a form of international and cross-border cooperation of HEIs. The results of the research show that international and cross--border cooperation of Polish HEIs is based primarily on national law, which, however, is characterized by high variability, which does not favour building stable relations. The cooperation of HEIs takes various forms, from non-institutionalised to quasi institutionalised and institutionalised. Polish HEIs are trying to join the internationalization process, and the availability of external funding is conducive to gradual institutionalization of international and cross-border cooperation of HEIs. There is a scarcity of studies on the subject, therefore the article may be of great cognitive value to legal science, especially in Poland, but also abroad (for scholars conducting comparative research).

European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation as the instrument of cross border cooperation

The article considers one of the most common and most effective forms of cross-border cooperation between the countries of the European Union, namely the European groupings of territorial cooperation. The role of territorial cooperation in the European Union is constantly growing as it is the basis of political, economic and social cohesion, which is an integral part of Ukrainian society. The development of territorial cooperation is due to the change and development of national, regional or local participants in this process. The Schengen Agreement, the common internal market and the common currency, as well as the emergence of numerous new cross-border projects and the development of cross-border territories, are integral parts of this process. The article examines the EGTC Tisza, which was established in October 2015 in the Transcarpathian region of Ukraine together with the Hungarian region of Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg and the municipality of Kisvárd. It is noted that the union has received broad social and political support from both sides at the regional and local levels. This event was decisive for both Ukraine and the EU, as for the first time such an association was created with the participation of a non-EU country. This was a long-awaited step, as the participating regions have long been cooperating together in various fields, including the implementation of grant projects. Many issues need to be addressed together, including flood protection, the rehabilitation of wastewater treatment plants, transport and the development of economic ties. We can say that today Euroregions are the most developed form of cross-border cooperation in Ukraine, but their activities also show a range of problems that hinder their effective functioning. This includes a large number of participants with different cultural and economic characteristics, disparities in the legislation and administration of the country, the low level of business structures and non-governmental organizations. Issues such as the lack of a systematic approach to the organization of Euroregional cooperation, the low level of regional government and the lack of financial support are also worth mentioning.

Reading EUropean borderlands under the perspective of legal geography and spatial justice

ABSTRACT Recently, the notion of spatial justice has been discussed as a possible conceptual foundation for rethinking EU Cohesion Policy. While scholars have adopted a dual distributive and procedural understanding of spatial justice, the paper argues that, applied to cross-border areas, such a conceptualisation is challenged to explain how the border contributes to disparities. We argue that actively questioning the role of law is paramount for better examination of the dynamics within border areas. An understanding of spatial justice informed by legal geography allows examination of how law fosters and impedes movement across borders. The paper presents three recent examples where policy representatives from affected communities have fought to adapt legal provisions to cross-border spatiality. Whether such initiatives increased border communities' capacities to shape their own development (i.e. European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation) or not yet (i.e. co-development at the Lorraine-Luxembourg border; European Cross-Border Mechanism), these examples show that analysing EUropean borderlands as a spatio-legal category helps understanding of how space and law constantly struggle with one another, and how spatial justice emerges from a movement out of this conflict. The paper concludes by discussing the practical and conceptual implications of combining legal geography and spatial justice for analysing EU Borderlands.

Comparison of the Air Pollution Mathematical Model of PM10 and Moss Biomonitoring Results in the Tritia Region

Knowing the relationship between pollution sources and air pollution concentrations is crucial. Mathematical modeling is a suitable method for the assessment of this relationship. The aim of this research was to compare the results of the Analytical Dispersion Modelling Supercomputer System (ADMOSS), which is used for air pollution modeling in large areas, with the results of moss biomonitoring. For comparison purposes, air pollution mathematical modeling and the collection of moss samples for biomonitoring in the Czech–Polish–Slovak border area in the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC) Tritia were carried out. Moss samples were analyzed by multi-element instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). The INAA results were statistically processed using the correlation-matrix-based hierarchical clustering and correlation analysis of the biomonitoring results and ADMOSS results. Biomonitoring using bryophytes proved to be suitable for the verification of mathematical models of air pollution due to the ability of bryophytes to capture the long-term deposition of pollutants and the resulting possibility of finding the real distribution of pollutants in the area, as well as identify the specific chemical elements, the distribution of which coincides with the mathematical model.

Scenarios for the Development of Multimodal Transport in the TRITIA Cross-Border Area

As the demand for transport is growing, more and more attention is being paid to its quality aspects. These include, among other things, efficiency, safety, and a continuous effort to reduce external costs. That is why the transport policies of the EU countries and individual regions are increasingly addressing the issue of sustainable transport development. Multimodal transport, which is seen as a key element to effectively counterbalance the dominant role of vehicle transport in the economic progress of the European Community, plays an important role in these programmes. For consistency and continuity of freight flows, cooperation between neighbouring countries and regions is essential. The future of multimodal freight transport within the cross-border area of Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia is not as evident as the transport policies imply. Therefore, the purpose of the paper is to identify a set of factors determining the development of multimodal transport within the cross-border area of TRITIA (The European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation of the four regional governments of Moravian-Silesian Region (CZ), Opole Voivodeship (PL), Silesian Voivodeship (PL) and Žilina Self-governing Region (SK)) and to develop four scenarios, the execution of which in the 2030 perspective depends on the implementation of cross-border infrastructure and organisational projects and the increasing level of cooperation in the field of multimodal transport. The article contains the methodology for developing scenarios of multimodal freight transport development. The research showed that initiating activities targeted at the development of multimodal transport within the cross-border area requires the involvement of all participants in the process, i.e., all countries (Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia), along with many different stakeholders. The future development of multimodal transport as provided for in the scenarios is not linearly correlated with the increase in cooperation and the number of implemented infrastructure and organisational projects. It is vital for future research to define the role of stakeholders both in terms of cooperation and collaboration development.

Eurocities of the Iberian Borderland: A Second Generation of Border Cooperation Structures. An Analysis of Their Development Strategies

The new territorial structures for the governance of the borderlands between Portugal and Spain (Eurocities) constitute a novel and exciting example of a local commitment to cross-border cooperation (CBC). The Eurocities are feasible institutions in very close cities and municipalities, and have always had intense relationships. With different speeds, formats and intensities, Eurocities have been forming along the European Union’s internal borders. Compared to other types of cooperation entities created mainly at regional or sub-regional scales (Euroregions and Eurodistricts), Eurocities are created at the municipal or local level, which are the most relevant protagonists of cross-border flows and relations. These new institutions are established based on different common objectives, such as economic dynamism, tourism, mobility, sustainability and access to funding, among many other fields of common interest. The present research deals with the geographical and institutional framework of these new Eurocities on the Portuguese–Spanish border, where they have increased in recent years. Their beginnings, evolution and characteristics are analyzed through a review work. In many cases, Eurocities become responses at the local and municipal scales. Some of these Eurocities have gone one step further by becoming a European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC), such as Chaves–Marín or Guadiana Eurocity. In addition, some of these second-generation CBC structures are integrating into higher regional levels, such as in the case of the Río Minho EGTC. Furthermore, the present study enables us to identify factors, such as the offer of common equipment and services offer, Eurocitizenship, enhancing access to European Funds, or the marketing and advertising of the Eurocity, as some of the critical factors for the success of the Iberian Eurocities.

Territorial cooperation, supraregionalist institution-building and national boundaries: the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC) at the eastern and western German borders

ABSTRACTThe article examines the interplay of territorial cooperation, national boundaries and supraregionalist institution-building with special focus on the EU legal instrument of the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC). After its introduction in 2006, the EGTC triggered a new push for a post-national Europe of the (cross-border) regions under a supranational roof. As a supraregionalist institution it pledged to provide competences to territorial authorities underneath the nation-state for autonomous territorial governance. Yet, despite the fact that the EGTC relies on an EU regulation, the applicable law in practice is still very much based on national jurisdiction. Moreover, recent renationalization processes also contribute to further rebordering so that national boundaries could be felt in different aspects of territorial governance. The research article, thence, investigates which specific boundaries that occur on national level between EU member states are ‘down-scaled’/‘downloaded’ towards the subnational (regional or local) level in the field of territorial governance. For this purpose, two EGTC projects with German participation will be scrutinized: the German–French EGTC Eurodistrict SaarMoselle and the German–Polish EGTC TransOderana. The analysis discloses the specific boundaries that either intentionally or unintentionally hinder cross-border governance processes and even impede successful EGTC foundation like in the case of the TransOderana.

Czech–Polish Cross-Border (Non) Cooperation in the Field of the Labor Market: Why Does It Seem to Be Un-De-Bordered?

The Czech–Polish border is almost 800 kilometres long. Since 1991, 6 Euroregions and two European Groupings of Territorial Co-operation (EGTC) were created and have been conducting cross-border cooperation (CBC) along the entire length of the border. This was probably also the institutionalisation of cross-border co-operation, what has helped to reach and maintain a high level of mutual Czech–Polish relations. What can therefore be considered striking or surprising is a rather low level of cross-border labor mobility between the labor forces of both countries. Authors therefore attempted to identify projects and initiatives in the field of the cross-border labor market along the entire border. Research showed that the CBC stakeholders don’t prioritise co-operation in the field of the labor market, as they don’t see any real cross-border demand. There are some exceptions, driven mainly by the automotive and mining industries in Czechia attracting a Polish workforce. The main reason for the relatively low level of Czech–Polish cross-border co-operation in the field of the labor market is an absence of a major economic engine on either side of the border, rather than any kind of hostile or re-bordering sentiments in mutual relations between subjects from both countries.

Uwarunkowania i formy instytucjonalnej polsUwarunkowania i formy instytucjonalnej polsko-czeskiej współpracy transgranicznej = Conditioning and forms of institutional cooperation across the Polish-Czech border

The social and political transitions taking place in Central and Eastern Europe post-1989 allowed Poland to develop cross-border cooperation with neighbouring counties. At local-government level in particular, the Czech Republic then became a key partner. Today, the Polish-Czech borderland resembles those between Poland and Germany, and between Poland and Slovakia, in constituting a model example of innovative cross-border cooperation. While the area first played hosted to Euroregions, it later also fell within European Groupings of Territorial Cooperation. And while collaboration between one local authority and another over the border has evolved particularly dynamically, as-yet untapped potential would seem to remain. Overall, this article seeks to analyse the actors currently operating across the Polish-Czech border, from a political-science perspective. These are Euroregions (of Nysa, Glacensis, Pradziad, Silesia, Cieszyn Silesia and the Beskids), as well as European Groupings of Territorial Cooperation (of Tritia and Novum), and selected units at local government level. The analysis of the transboundary entities, and those engaging in cross-border activity was of a genetic, structural and functional nature, and this facilitated the identification of similarities and differences between the actors concerned, making clear what their specifics are, and what the prospects for cooperation.