European Credit Transfer And Accumulation System Research Articles

Disciplinary Boundaries and Methodological Issues of Teaching Geopolitics in Turkey

This study aims to present a critical portrayal of teaching geopolitics at Turkish
 universities by assessing both undergraduate and graduate levels of Political
 Science and International Relations (IR) curricula. Geopolitical analysis has gone
 through several phases and traditions by conceiving space as a crucial element
 for representing world politics. In addition to interstate rivalries, geopolitics also
 refers to many conflicts and rivalries within an intrastate framework in the context
 of multiple territorial scales. While geopolitics seems to be falsely perceived as
 something equal to a state-centric and hard realist academic subfield under a
 strong military tutelage in Turkey, it lacks a broad multi-level analysis, as well
 as geographical and historical reasoning. In this study, I propose to consider
 cartography, territoriality, and geopolitical representations, which form the
 basis of contemporary geopolitical analysis. The article evaluates weekly
 schedules, learning outcomes, content, and objectives of the courses available
 on the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) information
 packages on university websites. Based on a qualitative case study, it eventually
 aims to improve the methodological character of geopolitics teaching, indirectly
 influencing the level and quality of geopolitics in Turkey.

“FLIPPED ASSESSMENT”: Proposal for a Self-Assessment Method to Improve Learning in the Field of Manufacturing Technologies

Striving toward goal completion and achieving objectives is one of the motors of personal advancement. The path to goal completion is fueled by many reasons, among which motivation stands out as one of the core impulses. Motivation acquires a particularly high relevance in learning, prompting educators to mind its substance when designing not only the material to be imparted but also the approach and the mechanisms to assess knowledge acquisition. The intrinsic nature of motivation might stem from self-realization, thriving in specific goals, or even exploring unknown ground. One of the main teacher–student interactions is the provision of adequate tools to achieve learning outcomes. One of the tools available to teachers is the exercise of extrinsic motivation. This paper proposes and assesses the initial implementation of a student-involved extrinsic motivation method. A pilot group in the Junior year of a Bachelor in Mechanical Engineering program was selected, in which the evaluation system was slightly modified with respect to the system that is normally used. The course selected for the study was a compulsory six European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) course covering production and manufacturing technology. Students were asked to partake in the drafting of questions to assess their own knowledge, hence indirectly increasing their motivation to learn the content. The tentative results obtained with the pilot group appear to be positive and relevant. Students showed a higher engagement during class and reported needing fewer hours of preparation at home (32% reduction). In addition, global satisfaction with the course was improved.

A qualitative document analysis of national guidelines in Nordic nursing education using the European Federation of Nurses Associations Competency Framework

Initial harmonization has been found within nursing education in the European Union member states, but with a need for the establishment of further, well-defined standards. The aim of this study was to describe and analyze the main content of nursing education expressed in national guidelines in the Nordic countries, seen as comparisons between the countries and to the European Federation of Nurses Associations (EFN) Competency Framework. A qualitative deductive research method and content analysis were applied to analyze 20 documents, using the EFN Competency Framework as a theoretical framework and analysis matrix. The study was performed in line with the Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) checklist. Variations in structure between the included countries was seen and evident uniformity was lacking. There were differences, e.g. the number of European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits needed for a degree that needs to be further explored in relation to the quality of education and the competence of newly qualified nurses. There is a question of whether the EU Framework corresponds to the need for nursing competencies for today and the future. Homogenization of guidelines and structures might facilitate further development and deeper collaboration between the Nordic countries, thereby leading to enhanced patient safety and care quality.

A process-aware approach for blockchain-based verification of academic qualifications

The global trend of credentialism as well as increased mobility in studies and work bring new requirements regarding the verification of academic qualifications. So far, traditional nostrification processes face challenges related to high process cycle times, elevated fees, and fraud incidents. In the higher education domain, blockchain-based approaches have emerged to revitalize the verification of academic qualifications, but they mostly rely on closed concepts offering their facility to a limited circle of entities. As a result, the verification of degrees is not publicly available to any third party. Moreover, in most cases, a concise process-aware approach describing the intended functionality with appropriate models is missing; this absence raises ambiguity and trust issues in the implemented application. This paper presents the design and early implementation of the VerDe (Verified Degrees) platform; a proposed blockchain-based application for registration and verification of academic qualifications. The novelty of the approach presented in this paper is the implementation of VerDe as a decentralized application utilizing Business Process Model & Notation (BPMN). This work demonstrates that usage of BPMN constructs provides an efficient method in addressing blockchain usability and complexity issues and facilitates the design and implementation of blockchain-based applications. The benefits of deploying VerDe in conjunction with BPMN are an efficient and transparent facility able to handle mobility consequences, detect fraud, and overcome administrative barriers by offering the verification capability to any third-party, and employing a custom-made token that emulates the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS).

유럽연합의 고등교육 시스템

Higher education policy is a policy area that is deeply located in the realm of national sovereignty, and member countries have objection to the unified policy of the European Union. Accordingly, higher education policy at the EU level was very limited. However, the Bologna Process was launched outside the European Union in 1999 to internationalize higher education due to the heightened sense of crisis caused by the decline in competitiveness of European universities. The Bologna Process aimed to establish a European Higher Education Area through mutual recognition and harmonization of degrees and certificates between European universities.
 European Union was also stimulated by the launch of the Bologna Process in the 2000s, expanding its higher education program and establishing several technical systems for student and faculty exchanges across borders. Specifically, the European Union expanded the Erasmus and Erasmus Mundus programs for the internationalization of universities. At the same time, the European Union actively implemented systems for human exchange, such as the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS).
 On the other hand, Bologna Process also built its own system such as Bologna Cycle for degree certificate and qualitative evaluation of higher education. The Bologna Process also introduced the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, already implemented by the European Union. It is noteworthy that the Bologna Process, which consists of 46 European countries, includes all 27 European Union member states. Accordingly, the European Union’s higher education policy coexists with the Bologna Process, and mutual exchange and system convergence are taking place.
 In Korea, internationalization of universities is also a major issue, and in order to promote exchanges and cooperation with the European Union, which has a similar academic level, it is necessary to discuss bilateral projects between the two sides. In addition, in order for Korean universities to promote international exchanges, it is necessary to establish a system for unified grades and degree certificates and qualitative evaluation of education among universities.

Measuring Time Load Using a Mobile Application to Monitor Curriculum Workload.

Insuffient time for learning activities makes learning very difficult. Weaker students need more time to appropriately manage their learning objectives. To ensure enough study time, curriculum designers must monitor potential mismatches between needed versus provided study time. This study was conducted to measure students' time loads and compare them to the workload determined by the curriculum and measured in European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits. Time load entry using the Studo mobile application consisted of entering the time required for all learning activities, categorized into attendance, self-study, and writing student papers, per course. In addition to time load measures, socio-demographic information on travel time, care obligations, and employment status was recorded. Over six semesters (2018/2019-2021), the average response rate per semester was low (8%-17%). Of the 75 piloted courses (4-16 per semester), 2 exceeded the number of hours specified in the curriculum. Regarding socio-demographic data, 3%-34% of the evaluated students worked part time (≥ 10 hours per week). In summary, students were disinclined to measure their learning time. With consideration of potential nonresponse bias, no significant evidence of curriculum workload exceedance was found for the evaluated courses at the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna. However, some students are under increased individual time pressure due to part-time employment. The ratio of measured to estimated time should be monitored as a key component to improve performance and enhance student learning.

The 3rd ESTRO-EFOMP core curriculum for medical physics experts in radiotherapy

PurposeTo update the 2011 ESTRO-EFOMP core curriculum (CC) for education and training of medical physics experts (MPE)s working in radiotherapy (RT), in line with recent EU guidelines, and to provide a framework for European countries to develop their own curriculum. Material and methodsSince September 2019, 27 European MPEs representing ESTRO, EFOMP and National Societies, with expertise covering all subfields of RT physics, have revised the CC for recent advances in RT. The ESTRO and EFOMP Education Councils, all European National Societies and international stakeholders have been involved in the revision process. ResultsA 4-year training period has been proposed, with a total of 240 ECTS (European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System).Training entrance levels have been defined ensuring the necessary physics and mathematics background. The concept of competency-based education has been reinforced by introducing the CanMEDS role framework. The updated CC includes (ablative) stereotactic-, MR-guided- and adaptive RT, particle therapy, advanced automation, complex quantitative data analysis (big data/artificial intelligence), use of biological images, and personalized treatments. Due to the continuously increasing RT complexity, more emphasis has been given to quality management. Clear requirements for a research project ensure a proper preparation of MPE residents for their central role in science and innovation in RT. ConclusionThis updated, 3rd edition of the CC provides an MPE training framework for safe and effective practice of modern RT, while acknowledging the significant efforts needed in some countries to reach this level. The CC can contribute to further harmonization of MPE training in Europe.

Current State of Compulsory Basic and Clinical Courses in Genetics for Medical Students at Medical Faculties in Balkan Countries With Slavic Languages.

Introduction: In this study we aimed to perform the first research on the current state of compulsory basic and clinical courses in genetics for medical students offered at medical faculties in six Balkan countries with Slavic languages (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, and Slovenia). Materials and Methods: The study was conducted from June to September 2021. One representative from each country was invited to collect and interpret the data for all medical faculties in their respective country. All representatives filled a questionnaire, which consisted of two sets of questions. The first set of questions was factual and contained specific questions about medical faculties and design of compulsory courses, whereas the second set of questions was more subjective and inquired the opinion of the representatives about mandatory education in clinical medical genetics in their countries and internationally. In addition, full course syllabi were analysed for course aims, learning outcomes, course content, methods for student evaluation and literature. Results: Detailed analysis was performed for a total of 22 medical faculties in Bosnia and Herzegovina (6), Croatia (4), Montenegro (1), North Macedonia (3), Serbia (6), and Slovenia (2). All but the two medical faculties in Slovenia offer either compulsory courses in basic education in human genetics (16 faculties/courses) or clinical education in medical genetics (3 faculties/courses). On the other hand, only the medical faculty in Montenegro offers both types of education, including one course in basic education in human genetics and one in clinical education in medical genetics. Most of the basic courses in human genetics have similar aims, learning outcomes and content. Conversely, clinical courses in medical genetics are similar concerning study year position, number of contact hours, ECTS (European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System) and contents, but vary considerably regarding aims, learning outcomes, ratio of types of classes, teaching methods and student evaluation. Conclusion: Our results emphasise the need for future collaboration in reaching a consensus on medical genetics education in Balkan countries with Slavic languages. Further research warrants the analysis of performance of basic courses, as well as introducing clinical courses in medical genetics to higher years of study across Balkan countries.

МНОГОФАКТОРНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ ШКАЛ ОЦЕНИВАНИЯ ЗНАНИЙ НА ОСНОВЕ НЕЧЕТКО-ВОЗМОЖНОСТНОГО ПОДХОДА

Teachers always face problems when assessing the competence level of test participants (whether students, undergraduates, etc.) in both moral and psychological fields as well as methodological. This raises important questions on the creation of professional systems, which have mathematical models set forth for their vital foundational path. The current working method in the creation of mathematical models for evaluating the competency of test participants is based on a fuzzy logic approach using both the explicit and implicit knowledge of highly qualified experts. One can see the realisation of this method in the example of Englishlanguage instruction. A comparison of two common assessment scales for knowledge of the tested has been carried out – the «fivepoint » standard adopted in Russia (or required, actually) and the converted sevenpoint ECTS (European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System) rating scale which is based on percentage. This study has shown that teachers cannot effectively assess the participants’ competency, neither on individual topics nor on the course as a whole, due to the narrowness of the «fivepoint » scale.

Teaching life cycle assessment in higher education

PurposeScientific Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) literature provides some examples of LCA teaching in higher education, but not a structured overview of LCA teaching contents and related competencies. Hence this paper aims at assessing and highlighting trends in LCA learning outcomes, teaching approaches and developed content used to equip graduates for their future professional practices in sustainability.MethodsBased on a literature review on teaching LCA in higher education and a collaborative consensus building approach through expert group panel discussions, an overview of LCA learning and competency levels with related teaching contents and corresponding workload is developed. The levels are built on the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and Bloom’s taxonomy of learning.Results and discussionThe paper frames five LCA learning and competency levels that differ in terms of study program integration, workload, cognitive domain categories, learning outcomes, and envisioned professional skills. It furthermore provides insights into teaching approaches and content, including software use, related to these levels.Conclusions and recommendationsThis paper encourages and supports higher educational bodies to implement a minimum of ‘life cycle literacy’ into students’ curriculum across various domains by increasing the availability, visibility and quality of their teaching on life cycle thinking and LCA.

Credit allocation and programmes design: insights from metaphor

ABSTRACT Volume is the dominant metaphor underlying the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS). Credits are used to ‘express the volume of learning based on the defined learning outcomes and their associated workload’, with the latter based on volume of student effort. But the convenience of volume can leave the first part overlooked, i.e. ‘the defined learning outcomes’ and in particular their relative importance or relative weight for achieving the overall programme outcomes. Paying attention to issues of relative weight and volume at module design stage is necessary to ensure overall programme balance and coherence. The second part of the article uses metaphor analysis to draw attention to this. Density, based on volume and weight, provides a more satisfactory metaphor for credit allocation, drawing attention to programme substance, which is what ultimately matters.

Simulation of a Real Call for Research Projects as Activity to Acquire Research Skills: Perception Analysis of Teacher Candidates

In this research, a novel methodology based on the simulation of a call for research projects was applied for the training of STEM secondary school teachers, with results raised and analyzed to determine the response of the students to this new methodology. The activity was applied in the same course during two academic years with student groups from very different teaching specialties such as mathematics, physics and chemistry, biology and geology, technology and health processes who were studying the Master’s Degree in Secondary Education, specifically, the 3 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) course of Initiation to Educational Research (IER), this Master’s course being mandatory for working as a secondary professor. The Master’s students are asked to write their own research project proposals for a fictitious call on a topic freely chosen by them, which might have been related to the research line of the final Master’s thesis. In it, they had to propose all the contents studied in the course (such as writing a brief state of the art, establishing a research team, setting objectives, a description of the methodology for educational research, instruments, a plan for the dissemination of the results, the needed resources, etc.). The students’ perceptions of the usefulness and reality of what they had learned for their professional development and for writing their final theses were assessed. The results based on the perceptions of the students demonstrate that the activity had been useful for assimilating concepts related to educational research in the context of secondary education (research skills), which will be useful for improving the critical sense of the students (teacher candidates) and for their professional future in the context of applied research in day-to-day secondary teacher activities. Furthermore, the results show the activity was useful for the development of the final Master’s thesis. The difficult aspects that the activity presented for them were analyzed. The results were statistically compared for the students of the different specialties, deducing, in all cases, a homogeneous good acceptance with slight differences between them.

Características y contenidos de los programas de maestría en salud pública en España

ObjectiveTo compare the main academic characteristics and contents of the different master's programs in public health currently offered in Spain. MethodA systematic search has been carried out in the Register of Universities, Centers and Degrees of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports. The main academic characteristics and the contents (mandatory and optional) of the programs of 11 official master's degrees with the renewed accreditation in 2018 were analyzed based on the data published on the universities’ web pages. ResultsMost programs are 60 ECTS (European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System), face-to-face, taught in Spanish, include in their curriculum the completion of a master's thesis but not professional practices. Only contents related to statistics and basic epidemiology, and the training activity of master's thesis, are offers by all programs. ConclusionsThe majority of public health master's programs in Spain shows a certain homogeneity regarding their academic characteristics, but a great heterogeneity in relation to their contents. There is also a great heterogeneity in the credits granted to the different subjects, especially optional subjects. It would be advisable to standardize a common core, especially in the mandatory contents.

ACADEMIC MOBILITY PROVISION: ACHIEVEMENTS AND NEW CHALLENGES FOR THE EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION SPACE

An analysis of the Bologna Process documents and the legal framework to ensure academic mobility to academic staff and students in Ukraine shows that understanding of the need for further implementation of the below listed: the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) has been achieved at the level of European and national higher education systems; national qualifications frameworks to be compatible with the EHEA Qualifications Framework (2005); the transcript of academic record as well as European and national higher education quality assurance systems. Significant achievements now include: expanding the international academic and student community; appearance of new perspectives of human resources development; improving career chances of graduates; adaptation of educational programs that are not offered by national higher education institutions; harmonization of national and international education quality assurance processes; practical success in creating an open, attractive and competitive EHEA. According to the Paris Communiqué (2018), the priorities in 2018-2020 for evaluating the quality of cooperation in the EHEA, in particular for ensuring academic mobility, are to implement: 1) a three-tier system compatible with the EHEA qualifications framework and the first and second ECTS cycles; 2) adherence to the Lisbon Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications; 3) ensuring the quality of education in accordance with the standards and guidelines of the EHEA.

ECVET and ECTS credit equivalency in higher education – A bridge too far?

AbstractThe implementation within Europe of a credit system for vocational education and training known as ECVET is a European Commission priority. The potential for permeability between the ECVET and European Credit Transfer and accumulation System (ECTS) was foreseen in the Recommendation to establish ECVET in 2009, while the Bruges Communique of 2010 called for the promotion of flexible links between vocational and higher education and increased coherence between ECVET and ECTS. To this end a significant number of EU‐funded projects were undertaken to explore compatibility between ECVET and ECTS. This article reviews the findings of these projects and reflects on their success in terms of achieving this policy goal. These bridging projects identified several points of compatibility between the two credit systems and produced valuable tools and frameworks to facilitate such permeability. Achieving credit equivalency between ECVET and ECTS does not appear feasible, rather the evidence points to using a learning outcomes‐based equivalency framework. However, this article calls into question the sustainability of these project results with regard to the lack of success in translating these findings into practice and the lack of co‐ordinated efforts to implement these findings at a national or pan European level.

Successful Curriculum Change in Health Management and Leadership Studies for the Specialist Training Programs in Medicine in Finland.

In Finland, the specialization programs in Medicine and Dentistry can be undertaken at all five university medical faculties in 50 specialization programs and in five programs for Dentistry. The specialist training requires 5 or 6 years (300–360 ECTS credits) of medical practice including 9 months of service in primary health care centers, theoretical substance specific education, management studies, and passing a national written exam. The renovation of the national curriculum for the specialization programs was implemented, first in 2008 and officially in August 2009, when theoretical multi-professional social, health management and leadership studies (10–30 ECTS credits) were added to the curriculum. According to European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS), 1 ECTS credit (henceforth, simply “ECTS”) means 27–30 h of academic work1 National guidelines for the multi-professional leadership training include the basics of organizational management and leadership, the social and healthcare system, human resources (HR) management, leadership interaction and organizational communication, healthcare economy, legislation (HR) and data management. Each medical faculty has implemented management studies autonomously but according to national guidelines. This paper will describe how the compulsory management studies (10 ECTS) have been executed at the Universities of Tampere and Turku. In Tampere, the 10 ECTS management studies follow a flexible design of six academic modules. Versatile modern teaching methods such as technology-assisted and student orientated learning are used. Advanced supplementary management studies (20 ECTS) are also available. In Turku, the 10 ECTS studies consist of academic lectures, portfolio and project work. Attendees select contact studies (4–6 ECTS) from yearly available 20 ECTS and proceed at their own pace. Portfolio and project comprise 2–5 ECTS each. The renovation of medical specializing physicians' management and leadership education has been a successful reform. It has been observed that positive attitudes and interest toward management overall are increasing among younger doctors. In addition, management and leadership education will presumably facilitate medical doctors' work as managers also. Continuous development of medical doctors' management and leadership education for physicians and dentists is needed while the changing and complex healthcare environment requires both professional and leadership expertise.

A module on Learning Technologies for teachers in Higher Education

This paper describes a 10 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS ) module in Learning Technologies which forms part of a Post Graduate Diploma in Academic Practice, part of a professional development framework for academic staff. The module, which is taught through seven themed workshops over one semester, is research-informed and practice-based. Assessment is on a pass/fail basis and includes three aspects supporting reflection, technical competency and the implementation of a technology-based project. Throughout the module, technology is used as a showcase for the module content itself. The intention is to integrate the use of technology to support the pedagogy, without over-using technology for its own sake. Through surveying past participants on the module there is evidence to suggest that good practice in the use of technology is being embedded in teaching and learning activities across the university.

EduCTX: A Blockchain-Based Higher Education Credit Platform

Blockchain technology enables the creation of a decentralized environment where transactions and data are not under the control of any third party organization. Any transaction ever completed is recorded in a public ledger in a verifiable and permanent way. Based on blockchain technology, we propose a global higher education credit platform, named EduCTX. This platform is based on the concept of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS). It constitutes a globally trusted, decentralized higher education credit and grading system that can offer a globally unified viewpoint for students and higher education institutions (HEIs), as well as for other potential stakeholders such as companies, institutions, and organizations. As a proof of concept, we present a prototype implementation of the environment, based on the open-source Ark Blockchain Platform. Based on a globally distributed peer-to-peer network, EduCTX will process, manage and control ECTX tokens, which represent credits that students gain for completed courses such as ECTS. HEIs are the peers of the blockchain network. The platform is a first step towards a more transparent and technologically advanced form of higher education systems. The EduCTX platform represents the basis of the EduCTX initiative which anticipates that various HEIs would join forces in order to create a globally efficient, simplified and ubiquitous environment in order to avoid language and administrative barriers. Therefore we invite and encourage HEIs to join the EduCTX initiative and the EduCTX blockchain network.

Clinical radiography education across Europe

PurposeTo establish a picture of clinical education models within radiography programmes across Europe by surveying higher education institutions registered as affiliate members of the European Federation of Radiography Societies (EFRS). MethodAn online survey was developed to ascertain data on: practical training, supervisory arrangements, placement logistics, quality assurance processes, and the assessment of clinical competencies. Responses were identifiable in terms of educational institution and country. All educational institutions who were affiliate members at the time of the study were invited to participate (n = 46). Descriptive and thematic analyses are reported. ResultsA response rate of 82.6% (n = 38) was achieved from educational institutions representing 21 countries. Over half of responding institutions (n = 21) allocated in excess of 60 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits to practical training. In nearly three-quarters of clinical placements there was a dedicated clinical practice supervisor in place; two-thirds of these were employed directly by the hospital. Clinical practice supervisors were typically state registered radiographers, who had a number of years of clinical experience and had received specific training for the role. Typical responsibilities included monitoring student progress, providing feedback and completing paperwork, this did however vary between respondents. In almost all institutions there were support systems in place for clinical placement supervisors within their roles. ConclusionsSimilarities exist in the provision of clinical radiography education across Europe. Clinical placements are a core component of radiography education and are supported by experienced clinical practice supervisors. Mechanisms are in place for the selection, training and support of clinical practice supervisors. Professional societies should work collaboratively to establish guidelines for effective clinical placements.

La enseñanza de Farmacogenética/Farmacogenómica y Genética en las facultades de Farmacia de España, las causas del atraso

The subject of Pharmacogenetics/Pharmacogenomics (PG) is provided in the 26.1% of the Spanish Pharmacy faculties, with the percentage being higher in private faculties (40%) than in the public ones (15.3%), and similar in Genetics (30.4%, in both). Six years ago in 2010, the teaching of PG was three times higher (89.3%) in American faculties. The higher percentage of those who do not provide/teach either of these two subjects relates to faculties that offer a higher number of places. In those where it is provided, it is mainly a mandatory subject. The subject of Genetics subject consists of 6 ECTS (European credit transfer and accumulation system), and the PG course 3 ECTS. Both have a high theoretical content, with a partial or total absence of practical, analytical, or health-related training. As knowledge is universal, these inequalities in the area of education of those subjects in our country lays the foundation for an unequal application of scientific advances and influences the principal of universality in our health. This lack of knowledge prevents having a safe and effective dispensation of drugs, following the recommendations of Regulatory Agencies like European Medicines Agency and Food and Drug Administration.