European Area Research Articles

Effectiveness of cooperative, collaborative, and interdisciplinary learning guided by software development in Spanish universities

The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) proposes to enhance active learning and student protagonism in order to improve academic performance. In this sense, different methodologies are emerging to create scenarios for self-regulation of their learning. In this study the cooperative, collaborative and interdisciplinary learning methodologies were compared in Spanish universities. The main objectives were to evaluate their effects in higher education and to explore the relationship between perceived group cooperation and self-perceived ability to work in a group, differences between educational Spanish contexts, educational methodologies and gender. To this end, a quasi-experimental design was carried out. Data analysis included the descriptive metrics, correlations and analysis of variance to evaluate the differences among pedagogical methods, their effects on cooperative learning, teamwork outcomes and gender differences, comprising a total of 229 students in Spain from Psychology, Early Childhood Education, Primary Education and Computer Engineering completed the two questionnaires. Results showed that the highest correlation between perceived cooperative activity and self-perceived ability to work in a group was found among computer science students, especially among women, suggesting that the interdisciplinary learning focused on software tool development may be the most effective methodology to improve teamwork and cooperative learning outcomes. Despite these findings concern only to Spanish universities, limiting the generalizability of results, the interdisciplinary methodology seems promising for improving both teaching quality and teamwork skills. The learning methodologies of interdisciplinary projects may therefore need to be implemented within the framework of cooperative and collaborative methodologies.

A semi-quantitative multi-hazard risk assessment framework for European coastal urban areas

Coastal cities are increasingly exposed to a wide range of hydro-meteorological and climate-related hazards and their negative consequences. Developing disaster risk assessments to support risk management activities in these areas is therefore a critically important but challenging task, due to the diversity of processes involved and associated data requirements. Semi-quantitative, i.e. index-based assessments can be instrumental in addressing these issues: by trading off some detail in the representation of risk for simplicity in the underlying data and methods, it becomes possible to assess, compare, and easily communicate risk for various sectors, hazards, and locations. In this context, the present article presents a new semi-quantitative, GIS-based multi-hazard risk assessment framework for coastal urban areas. The framework uses various large-scale datasets and state-of-the-art risk modelling concepts to provide risk scores for six perils in European coastal cities: fluvial flooding, coastal flooding, extreme precipitation, landslide, heat wave, and coastal erosion. An application is presented for the risk assessment of ten case-study areas, illustrating the potential of the proposed framework for identifying the most pressing risks for each area and supporting the prioritization of more detailed quantitative risk assessments for specific cities, sectors and/or hazards, based on which risk mitigation measures can be defined.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF EUROPEAN STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES (ESG) IN THE QUALITY ASSURANCE SYSTEM IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

International cooperation in the field of quality assurance is one of the important elements of the Bologna process, which aims to create a European Higher Education Area (EAHE). The main tool in the implementation of this work is the European Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area (ESG). The Twinning project on providing support to the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Azerbaijan with the aim of further adapting the higher education system to the requirements of the European Higher Education Area, launched in 2015, provided an opportunity to apply ESG in Azerbaijan's higher education. One of the mandatory results of the project is the preparation of standards and guidelines for quality assurance in accordance with ESG in Azerbaijani higher education (AzST) and the testing of the document in three higher education institutions.

Community Resilience Assessment: Implementation of a Novel Resilience Framework in Four Different European Case Study Areas

Community Resilience Assessment: Implementation of a Novel Resilience Framework in Four Different European Case Study Areas

FORMATION OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN THECONDITIONS OF UKRAINE'S INTEGRATION INTO THE EUROPEAN HIGHEREDUCATION COMMUNITY

The article summarizes the results of scientific work and highlights the experience and approaches to the formation of interpersonal communication skills in the context of Ukraine’s integration into the European higher education community. It is stated that the European integration progress of Ukraine is accompanied by positive changes in the socio-economic development of society and the introduction of innovative changes in the field of higher education, which are aimed at successful political, legal, economic, and educational integration into the European space. It is noted that since 2005, Ukraine has been participating in the Bologna process, i.e. an international initiative aimed at reforming and unifying higher education in the countries of the European area of higher education. It is found that the alignment of the national system of higher education with European and world standards involves the transition to the system of competence education. The classification of integrated characteristics of the quality of training of education seekers and the results of their training, i.e. competencies, is given. It is pointed out that one of the key positions among “soft” skills is occupied by communicative competence, which requires the formation of interpersonal communication skills. The categories of theories of interpersonal communication are defined and characterized. A model of effective interpersonal communication is proposed, which provides for the achievement of individual group and organizational results thanks to a properly adjusted process of filtering perception and cognitive selection, as well as taking into account the situational characteristics of communication. A taxonomy of interpersonal communication skills is given. It is noted that training students of higher education in effective interpersonal communication skills requires teachers with relevant knowledge, as well as guidance and instruction in learning to develop and improve these skills. It is substantiated that for the successful formation of interpersonal communication skills in higher education students of Ukraine, it is necessary to study the experience and implement the practices of the European educational space. Prospective directions for further scientific research on the formation of interpersonal communication skills among students of higher education are outlined.

The sustainability of small‐scale sheep and goat farming in a semi‐arid Mediterranean environment

AbstractIntroductionSmall‐scale sheep and goat farming is one of the business models the EU depends on to achieve the objectives of the Green Deal. However, these production systems are characterized by structural weaknesses that risk being aggravated by international events, such as the post‐COVID‐19 crisis and reconstruction, the conflict in the European area and the generalized inflationary wave. Against this scenario, the work aims to expand knowledge of these companies’ sustainability levels to assess their performance, business model, the strategic keys to their resilience and chances of survival in the changed international scenario.Materials & MethodsThe approach chosen is SAFA (Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture Systems), the FAO's holistic framework. The empirical analysis focused on a sample of farms in a semi‐arid Mediterranean area.ResultsThe results demonstrate the sustainability lag in governance, social capital, fertilizer management, landscape heritage and economic terms. This is due to the absence of strategic planning on soil, environmental and livestock management, genetic and human resource management, and farm structure. Regarding economic resilience on performance, the weight of the CAP (common agricultural policy) for these farms and the effect of high production costs are high.ConclusionThe work is helpful for different stakeholders, who are invited both to structure the intervention of eco‐schemes on animal welfare for the 2023/2027 programming period and to support farm development plans to foster the flow of innovation, cooperation and sustainability.

Espace européen de l’éducation : renforcer la recherche en pédagogie universitaire pour aller à la quête d’environnements informatiques et de pratiques éducatives novatrices

In the digital age, technological developments have emerged, which have prompted researchers and education practitioners to readapt to the new digital context. Research in university pedagogy has been extensive, with the aim of inserting this new digital culture into recent reforms. Computer systems accompanied by technological devices have been put into effect in order to demonstrate pedagogical innovation through the use of pioneering educational practices. According to the strategic framework of the European Education Area, the Member States of the European Union must set new objectives based not only on the strengthening of the means of strategic cooperation and synergies, in particular the European Research Area and the Bologna Process, but also on the setting of objectives and indicators of progress towards the achievement of the European Education Area. While taking into account the renewal of the university context in terms of education and training in the European area, it would be interesting to focus on the essential contribution of the Francophone University Agency (AUF) in the renewal of university pedagogy and training. Then digital pedagogical innovation (DPI) is carried out through networks and online computer systems. Finally, given the internationalization and digitalization of education, innovative pedagogical practices have emerged in the higher cycle. The implementation of learning management systems, whether in a blended learning model environment or in an open and distance learning environment, plays an essential role at the personal level in the development of learning strategies, but also at the collective level in the cultivation of professional competences.

ORGANIZATION OF INTERNAL QUALITY ASSURANCE SYSTEMS AS A CONSTRUCT OF THE NATIONAL QUALITY ASSURANCE SYSTEM: PRACTICE OF KAZAKHSTANI UNIVERSITIES

The restructuring of the quality assurance system of higher education in Kazakhstan is considered a condition for the formation of competitive human potential. The research interest of the authors of this article is aimed at the practice of organizing the internal quality assurance system as the first component of the three-dimensional model of the National Quality Assurance System, which also includes the external quality assurance system and mechanisms of management and regulation of the quality assurance system. The activity of Kazakhstani HEIs with orientation on the European Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in Higher Education in the European Higher Education Area (ESG EHEA) is carried out through the activity of designing a system of measures, including planning, organization and implementation of the actual internal system of quality assurance, adequate to the features of the educational environment of the HEI. As a result of design activity, "author's" normative, organizational, personnel conditions of internal quality assurance systems are created. The purpose of our research was to analyze the practices of organization of internal quality assurance system by HEIs of Kazakhstan as a construct of the National Quality Assurance System. The study allowed us to identify the common and special in the organization of internal quality assurance systems in the context of the implementation of quality assurance methodology in higher education organizations, in the context of academic freedom.

Impact of Biomass Burning, Wildfires, and Wind Events on Aerosol Optical Depth: Implications for Climate Change

In this article, we describe multiannual variations of the atmospheric aerosol optical depth values in the widely understood area of the Baltic Sea. We present the trends in the changes and depict unusual aerosol situations. As a result of analyses, we focus on 2019, since unusually high values of aerosol optical depth were recorded in several stations around the Baltic. We match the high aerosol levels with an unusually high number of wildfires across Europe in spring and summer, which emitted large quantities of aerosols into the atmosphere that were distributed over vast European areas in part by the wind. We then connect this case with the climate change consequences. Since aerosols influence the radiative budget of the planet by directly affecting the atmospheric radiation budget, it is obvious that human well-being is in danger due to wildfires, as well as from the atmospheric perspective. Climate change will lead to more frequent fires; thus, humans need to develop solutions to decrease the risk of fire outbreaks.

Main current legal and regulatory frameworks for carbon dioxide capture, transport, and storage in the European Economic Area

There is broad consensus on the key role that carbon dioxide (CO2) capture, transport, and storage (CCTS) systems will play in mitigating climate change, either by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently or by avoiding CO2 emissions generated by point sources, especially from hard-to-abate sectors (e.g., waste-to-energy, cement, shipping or aviation). Although CCTS is ready to be implemented from a technical standpoint, the legal and regulatory framework required for its implementation and regulation could be further improved. In this article, we summarize and critically discuss the provisions of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (the ‘OSPAR Convention’), and of the London protocol, as well as of the European CCS and ETS Directives. With a focus on the European Economic Area, we highlight existing gaps and hurdles that should be tackled in view of the large-scale deployment of CCTS. Furthermore, as the legal landscape for CO2 transport and geological storage is evolving rapidly, we provide an overview of recent clarifications on aspects of the existing legislation and a summary of new proposals presented by the European Commission in this space.

Identification of Pregnancy Adverse Drug Reactions in Pharmacovigilance Reporting Systems: A Novel Algorithm Developed in EudraVigilance.

There is a need to strengthen the evidence base regarding medication use during pregnancy and to facilitate the early detection of safety signals. EudraVigilance (EV) serves as the primary system for managing and analysing information concerning suspected adverse drug reactions (ADRs) within the European Economic Area. Despite its various functionalities, the current format for electronic submissions of safety reports lacks a specific data element indicating medicine exposure during pregnancy. This paper aims to address the limitations of existing approaches by developing a rule-based algorithm in EV that more reliably identifies cases that are truly representative of an ADR during pregnancy. The study utilised the standardised MedDRA query (SMQ) 'Pregnancy and neonatal topics' (PNT) as a benchmark for comparison. Recognising that the SMQ PNT also retrieves healthy pregnancy outcomes, contraceptive failure, failed abortifacients as well as ADRs not associated with pregnancy, a novel algorithm was tailored to improve the accuracy of identifying suspected ADRs occurring during pregnancy. Upon testing, the algorithm demonstrated superior performance, correctly predicting 90% of cases reporting an ADR during pregnancy, compared to 54% achieved by the SMQ PNT. The implementation of the algorithm in EV led to the retrieval of 202,426 cases. The development and successful testing of the novel algorithm represents a step forward in pregnancy-specific signal detection in EV. Because signals associated with pregnancy may be diluted in a large database such as EV, this study lays the groundwork for future research to evaluate the effectiveness of disproportionality methods on a more refined subset of pregnancy-related ADR reports.

European vineyards and their cultural landscapes exposed to record drought and heat

CONTEXTEuropean vineyards, producing over 50% of the world's wine and hosting significant cultural landscapes, face threats from climate change and related severe weather events. The summer of 2022, especially July, posed significant challenges due to extreme drought and high temperatures. However, this period also provided an opportunity to study how such events might involve viticulture in Europe and to explore mitigation solutions. OBJECTIVEThe objectives are (1) to characterize the severity of the extreme event of July 2022 in European wine regions regarding primary climatic parameters, (2) map vineyards at risk due to agricultural drought and high land surface temperature, and (3) discuss the role of various water-related interventions for mitigating similar events. METHODSAfter identifying the locations of European vineyards using the Corine Land Cover 2018 (CLC2018), open-access satellite data were employed to: (1) assess anomalies in Maximum Air Temperature (NATm), Land Surface Temperature (LST), Precipitation (P), and Soil Moisture (SM) in July 2022 compared to long-term averages; (2) identify regions at higher risk that experienced extreme agricultural drought (Vegetation Health Index, VHI = Extreme) and LST > 35 °C. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSIn July 2022, European vineyards experienced an average increase of 11% in NATm, a 9% rise in LST, and a reduction of 47% in P and 30% in SM compared to historical averages. 18% of European vineyards were at risk of drought and excessive heat, particularly in Portugal (31%), France (27%), and Italy (21%), including 10 viticultural cultural landscapes. Findings highlight the urgent need for long-term sustainable water management practices over emergency interventions. This research supports informed decision-making, emphasizing that climate resilience is necessary for preserving the cultural heritage of European wine-growing areas. SIGNIFICANCEThis research provides an overview of the dynamics of extreme events on viticulture at a continental scale, promoting climate-aware viticultural systems and offering insight scalable to global viticulture under changing climatic conditions.

Up to 80% of threatened and commercial species across European marine protected areas face novel climates under high emission scenario

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a critical tool for safeguarding marine species and habitats for the future, though the effects of projected climate change raise concerns about their long-term success. Assessing the degree to which MPAs may be exposed to future novel climatic conditions is, therefore, crucial for informing conservation and management actions aimed at ensuring a resilient and thriving ocean in the years to come. Here, we evaluate the future exposure of 398 threatened and commercially important species to novel and extremely novel climatic conditions within European MPAs. We estimated climate novelty through multivariate analyses considering biologically meaningful distribution drivers of temperature, oxygen, pH, and primary productivity from present-day to the end of the 21st-century conditions under contrasting shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP) scenarios—low emission scenario (SSP1–1.9) and high emission scenario (SSP5–8.5). Our findings suggest that, under SSP1–1.9, ~6.5% of species and 0.5% of European MPAs will be at risk due to future novel conditions. In contrast, under SSP5–8.5, 87% of MPAs and 80% of species are projected to be at risk. Notably, up to 100% of species currently located in the MPAs of enclosed and semi-enclosed seas like the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea are projected to be exposed to novel or even extremely novel conditions. Virtually all species in most of those regions will be at risk, suggesting that even new MPAs might not be able to adequately protect them. Comparatively, the Norwegian Sea, North-East Atlantic, and western parts of the Mediterranean and North Seas are expected to be less impacted even under the high emission scenario. Overall, our study advances the understanding of the potential impacts of future climate change scenarios on threatened and commercially important marine species in European MPAs and reinforces the urgent need to meet the Paris Agreement. Our results suggest that existing approaches to marine governance in Europe may be insufficient for ensuring the success of MPAs in light of future impacts and that novel anticipatory forms of governance are needed.

Sources of organic gases and aerosol particles and their roles in nighttime particle growth at a rural forested site in southwest Germany

Abstract. The composition, sources and chemical transformation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and organic aerosol (OA) particles were investigated during July–August 2021 at a rural forested site in southwest Germany, 10 km north of the city of Karlsruhe. VOCs and semi-volatile OA particles were measured with a proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometer coupled to the CHemical Analysis of aeRosols ONline particle inlet (CHARON–PTR-MS). The CHARON-measured OA mass accounted for 62 ± 18 % on average of the total OA mass (4.2 ± 2.8 µg m−3) measured concurrently with an aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS). The total concentrations of measured VOCs ranged from 7.6 to 88.9 ppb with an average of 31.2 ± 13.4 ppb. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) was used to identify major source factors of VOCs and OA particles. Three types of oxygenated VOC (OVOC), namely aromatic OVOCs, biogenic OVOCs and aged OVOCs, contributed on average 11 % ± 9 %, 37 % ± 29 % and 29 % ± 21 % of total VOC concentrations, respectively. The results of AMS–PMF indicated substantial contributions of oxygenated organic compounds to OA particle mass. Three secondary OA (SOA) factors determined by CHARON–PMF analysis, namely aromatic SOA (5 % ± 7 %), daytime biogenic SOA (17 % ± 17 %) and nighttime biogenic SOA (28 % ± 21 %), consistently showed high contributions to the total CHARON-measured OA mass. Nighttime particle growth was observed regularly in this area, which was mainly attributed to the semi-volatile organic compounds and organic nitrates formed from the oxidation of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. This study presents the major sources, real-time transformations of VOCs and OA particles, and nighttime particle formation characteristics for central European forested areas.

Development of European aviation integration: Ukraine on the path to the European Common Aviation Area

The development of the EU air transport market is based on the use of a complex structure of institutional regulation and various types of multilateral agreements: "European Common Aviation Area", "Open Skies", "Horizontal" as well as "Common Aviation Area" and "Euro-Mediterranean Aviation Agreement". The article is aimed at disclosing the essence and systematization of key features of integration processes in the field of air transport of the European Union, as well as in its relations with neighbouring countries, including Ukraine, which has intensified its actions on the way to the European Common Aviation Area. Based on using the systematic approach as well as methods of comparative law, logical and historical, the identification of the essence of the multilateral agreements and the systematization of their provisions made it possible to identify the patterns of development of European aviation integration and to highlight three clusters of international agreements which the EU uses to implement its external aviation policy.The assessment of the current state of implementation of the relevant EU Directives and Regulations into the legislation of Ukraine in detail for each specialized component showed directions for further development for integration into the European common aviation area.

PROJECT ARCHETYPES OF THE EUROPEAN RESEARCH AREA: EXPLORING THE OCCASIONAL ENGAGEMENT PATTERNS OF THE EUROPEAN SOUTHERN NEIGHBOURHOOD

This paper examines the project-based pattern of European Southern Neighbourhood engagement in the European Research Area. Thereby, this study informs about the role of the European Research Area in advancing EU objectives and ambitions in the enduringly salient European Neighbourhood Policy context. The research question that drives this study is: What project archetypes’ pattern denotes the European Southern Neighbourhood’s participation in the pan-European space intended to facilitate the free flow of talent and ideas? The guiding hypothesis anticipates that the prevailing archetype corresponds to an encounter lasting for one project, and prolonged engagement throughout several consecutive projects is a rarity. This enquiry into the relationality weaved by research collaboration formulates four archetypes. The main empirical material employed to model and study the four archetypes is semi-structured interviews with Europe-based project managers. Insights offered by the leading figures of projects funded by Framework Programme 7 and Horizon 2020 reveal how multilateral research-driven ties contribute to post-Westphalian external action aspirations. Devised analytic narratives attest to the performances of the EU science diplomacy, for example, in the form of technoscientific gifts as well as sharing and jointly developing kn/own/ables. Expert experiences of co-developing research-intensive solutions with Morocco- and Tunisia-based colleagues to address the most pressing challenges faced by the EU and its Southern neighbours are resourceful. They offer new insights into the patterned routines that support the implementation of such supranationally steered governance frameworks as the European Research Area, including its external action and science diplomacy dimensions. Almost half of the studied projects correspond to the archetype with one EU-funded project interaction. This confirms the rather sporadic or ad hoc relational ties of the European Southern Neighbourhood to the European Research Area, facilitated by various Europe-based competence centres.

Understanding Public Perception of Internet Security in the European Union

Abstract This paper presents an extensive analysis of Internet security experiences and perceptions among European Union (EU) citizens, as detailed by data within commented graphics highlighting awareness of online privacy practices, security-related aspects and data tracking methods. The paper also examines the implications of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) regarding businesses operating within the EU and the European Economic Area (EEA). Via a thorough investigation of Internet users' awareness of cookies as tracking tools and the prevalence of security-related incidents, the paper provides insights into the evolving landscape of online privacy and security. It elucidates the challenges and opportunities presented by GDPR compliance for businesses, compliance requirements, spanning core principles and broader implications of data processing practices. The findings mark the imperative to align businesses’ operations with GDPR provisions, addressing key aspects such as consent mechanisms, lawful bases and the importance of robust data security measures. The conclusion reveals the significance derived from the intersection of internet security perceptions, GDPR compliance, and business operations within the EU and EEA. Synthesizing empirical data with regulatory analysis, the paper provides a valuable understanding of the challenges and opportunities within the evolving regulatory landscape, thereby equipping businesses with actionable strategies in order to safeguard data privacy rights and uphold regulatory compliance in the digital age.

Occurrence and distribution of pesticides and transformation products in ambient air in two European agricultural areas

Pesticides present a significant risk for both humans and the environment. However, quantitative data for a broad range of airborne pesticides in agricultural areas are missing. During or after the application, pesticides can reach the atmosphere and partition between the particulate and gaseous phase. As part of the EU project SPRINT, weekly ambient air samples were collected from two agricultural areas in Portugal (vineyard) and the Netherlands (potatoes, onions, and sugarbeet) between April 2021 and June 2022 using high-volume air samplers. The samples were analysed for 329 pesticides, of which 99 were detected. The most frequently detected compounds included the fungicides folpet, fenpropidin and mandipropamid, the insecticide chlorpyrifos-methyl, the herbicide terbuthylazine, and the metabolite prothioconazole-desthio, which were found with detection frequencies between 40 and 57 %. Pesticide concentrations ranged between 0.003 ng/m3 and 10 ng/m3. Remarkably, 97 % of the samples contained at least one pesticide and in 95 % of the samples, pesticide mixtures were present. The calculated particle phase fractions correlated with the octanol-air partitioning coefficient for most of the investigated compounds. Furthermore, calculated daily inhalation rates for individual pesticides and pesticide mixtures were far below the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) with a margin of exposure (MOE) of >1000 for the highest calculated daily inhalation rate for a child. However, as this value only includes pesticide intake from food and drinking water and considering that 91 % of the detected pesticides are associated with potential adverse human health effects. These findings highlight the broad range of airborne pesticides in agricultural areas and the need for quantitative data to include the intake of mixtures of highly hazardous pesticides by inhalation in human risk assessment.

Recognition of nursing as an academic discipline in French-speaking Europe

Nursing is recognized worldwide as an academic discipline. However, if we look at nursing training in Belgium, France, Luxembourg and Switzerland, this does not appear to be the case. Disparities persist not only in terms of initial training, but also in graduate and post-graduate training. This underlines the difficulties of establishing and recognizing nursing as an academic discipline in the French-speaking European area.

Analysis of Allergy and Hypersensitivity Reactions to COVID-19 Vaccines According to the EudraVigilance Database.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic presented a new challenge in modern medicine: the development of vaccines was followed by massive population vaccinations. A few reports on post-vaccination allergic reactions have made patients and medical personnel uneasy as to COVID-19 vaccines' allergic potential. Most of the studies in this area to date have been small, and some that were based on global databases skipped most of the allergic diseases and concentrated only on anaphylaxis. We aimed to analyze the incidence of serious allergic reactions based on the EudraVigilance (EV) database, regardless of the reported symptoms and allergy mechanism. The total number of administrated vaccine doses was extracted on 5 October 2023 from Vaccine Tracker and included all administrations since vaccinations began in the European Economic Area (EEA). Data on serious allergic reactions to COVID-19 vaccines were extracted from the EudraVigilance database with the same time point. The code names of 147 allergic symptoms or diseases were used. The frequency of serious allergic reactions per 100,000 administered vaccine doses was 1.53 for Comirnaty, 2.16 for Spikevax, 88.6 for Vaxzevria, 2.11 for Janssen, 7.9 for Novavax, 13.3 for VidPrevtyn Beta, and 3.1 for Valneva. The most prevalent reported reactions were edema (0.46) and anaphylaxis (0.40). Only 6% of these reactions were delayed hypersensitivity-oriented. The overall frequency of potential serious allergic reactions to COVID-19 is very rare. Therefore, COVID-19 vaccines seem to be safe for human use. The lowest frequency of allergic reaction was observed for Comirnaty and the highest for Vaxzevria.