European American College Students Research Articles

Culture and Counterfactuals

Past research, with its emphasis on affective regulatory processes, has failed to find cross-cultural differences in counterfactual thoughts. In the current study, the authors examine the tendency to generate additive counterfactuals (those that focus on the addition of new aspects that were not in fact present) and subtractive counterfactuals (those that focus on subtraction of factual aspects) among Mainland Chinese and European American university students in five life domains: schoolwork, romantic relationships, family relationships, friendships, and life in general. As in previous studies, the authors find an overall main effect, in which additive counterfactuals predominate over subtractive counterfactuals within both cultural groups. However, they also find systematic cultural differences in the likelihood of generating additive and subtractive counterfactuals in the domains of schoolwork and family. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding the nature of cultural differences.

“Everybody knows it’s true”: Social dominance orientation and right-wing authoritarianism moderate false consensus for stereotypic beliefs

European American university students ( N = 89) judged the percentage of African Americans who possess 16 traits (e.g., poor, violent, and emotionally expressive) and then estimated how other students would make the same judgments. Participants also completed measures of social dominance orientation (SDO) and right-wing authoritarianism (RWA). Individuals with both high SDO and high RWA held the least positive views of African Americans. False consensus emerged in the form of a significant positive average within-person partial correlation between participants’ own ratings and their judgments of how other students would respond, controlling for the actual responses of other students. False consensus was positively related to SDO and a significant SDO × RWA interaction indicated that false consensus was highest for participants with both high SDO and high RWA. Results suggest that hierarchy-legitimizing beliefs in the form of stereotypes may be sustained internally through false consensus, especially among those most prone to prejudice.

Ethnicity, Acculturation, and Religiosity as Predictors of Female College Students' Role Expectations

The present study was designed to examine ethnicity, acculturation, and religiosity as predictors of European American and Korean American evangelical female college students' role expectations. Fifty-seven European American and 37 Korean American single women, who ranged in age from 17 to 24 years, completed a demographic questionnaire, a role expectation measure, three religiosity measures, and an acculturation measure. The results indicated a significant negative correlation between fundamentalism and role-sharing expectations for European American women and a significant positive correlation between level of acculturation and role-sharing expectations for Korean American women. The results suggest that fundamentalism is a stronger predictor of role expectations than religious commitment in European American women and that acculturation is a more accurate predictor of role expectations than generation in the United States among Korean American women.

The Mediating Role of Parental Expectations in Culture and Well‐Being

In two studies, we examined the role of perceived fulfillment of parental expectations in the subjective well-being of college students. In Study 1, we found that American college students reported having higher levels of life satisfaction and self-esteem than did Japanese college students. American college students also reported having fulfilled parental expectations to a greater degree than did Japanese college students. Most importantly, the cultural difference in well-being was mediated by perceived fulfillment of parental expectations. In Study 2, we replicated the mediational finding with Asian American and European American college students. Asian American participants also perceived their parents' expectations about their academic performance to be more specific than did European Americans, which was associated with the cultural difference in perceived fulfillment of parental expectations. In short, perceived parental expectations play an important role in the cultural difference in the well-being of Asians and European Americans.

Cues used for distinguishing African American and European American voices

Past studies have shown that listeners can distinguish most African American and European American voices, but how they do so is poorly understood. Three experiments were designed to investigate this problem. Recordings of African American and European American college students performing various reading tasks were used as the basis for stimuli in all three. In the first experiment, stimuli were subjected to monotonization, lowpass filtering at 660 Hz, and no modification. In the second, stimuli featuring certain ethnically diagnostic vowels and control stimuli were subjected to monotonization, conversion of vowels to schwa, or no modification. In the third, stimuli featuring diagnostic vowels and control stimuli were modified so that the intonation of paired African American and European American speakers was swapped. In all three experiments, African American and European American listeners in North Carolina and European American listeners in West Virginia identified the ethnicity of the speaker of each stimulus. Vowel quality emerged as the most consistent cue for identifications. However, listeners accessed other cues differently for male and female speakers. Breathiness was correlated with identifications of male speakers but not of female speakers. F0-related factors proved more important for female speakers than for male speakers. [Work supported by NSF.]

You Need to Understand My Gender Role: An Empirical Test of Tannen's Model of Gender and Communication

In her popular book on gender differences in communication, Deborah Tannen proposed that women and men interpret messages along different dimensions (intimacy and control) and that these differing interpretations make intersex communication difficult. In the present study, we contrasted Tannen's model with a more complex model that incorporated gender role as a factor that influences the interpretations of messages. Causal modeling of data from questionnaires (N = 192) administered to predominately European American university students revealed stronger support for a complex model than for the basic model.

The Factor Structure of the Romantic Beliefs Scale for African Americans and European Americans

The factor structure of Sprecher and Metts’ (1989) Romantic Beliefs Scale (ROMBEL) was investigated with a sample of 254 African-American and 234 European-American college students (342 females and 146 males). Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were used to evaluate the generalizability of the model. Differences in the factor structures between African-American and European-American respondents were found. The factor structure did not replicate for African-American respondents. Because the measure was developed using a predominately white sample, implications for its use in research on more diverse populations are discussed.

The Effect of Health Value and Ethnicity on the Relationship Between Hardiness and Health Behaviors

Associations among hardiness, health value, and health protective behaviors were examined as a function of ethnicity among 80 African American and 100 European American college students. The role of health value as moderator versus mediator in the hardiness-health behavior link was explored. Racial differences in correlations among hardiness, control, and commitment were found, with stronger relations for African American than European Americans. Moderate positive relations between hardiness, control, commitment, and health value for African American, as contrasted with weak relations between commitment and health value for European Americans, were also shown. A partial mediational effect for health value with personal distress and moderator effects for health value with personal distress and health habits were found for African American only. Race predicted hardiness variables, tobacco and alcohol use, personal distress, and health habits beyond what was accounted for by occupation and income. The ramifications of these data with regard to future studies on hardiness, health value, and health behaviors for African American are discussed.

Validity of Personal Growth Initiative Scale scores with a Mexican American college student population.

This study tested the validity of scores on the Personal Growth Initiative Scale (PGIS; C. Robitschek, 1998, 1999) with a Mexican American college student sample. Results indicated that the PGIS scores appear to be culturally relevant for this population, with scores on the PGIS having many similar relations with other variables that have been found in prior research with mostly European American college students. PGIS scores appear to be minimally related to measures of cultural constructs for both Mexican American men and women. Results are discussed in terms of their relations to constructs prevalent in Mexican American cultures. Limitations, implications for counseling, and suggestions for future research are presented.

Ethnic Differences in the Measurement of Academic Self-Concept in a Sample of African American and European American College Students

This study examined the validity and reliability of scores on the Academic Self-Concept Scale (ASCS) in a group of 291 European American and 396 African American college students. The study compared the factor structure and scale and subscale internal consistencies for these samples to previously reported findings by Reynolds. The seven-factor solution reported by Reynolds was essentially replicated with the European American sample, whereas an eight-factor solution was found with the African American sample. Results suggest that there are important ethnic differences in the structure of academic self-concept regarding beliefs about ability, and the relationship between effort and grades.

Gender Differences in Attributions and Emotions in Helping Contexts

Gender differences in the provision and receipt of emotional support may result from differences in the formation of responsibility and effort attributions in support-seeking interactions. Participants (N = 1,211, primarily middle-class, European American college students) read support-seeking scenarios that varied in support-seeker gender, responsibility for the problem, and effort to resolve the problem, as well as the problem itself, and completed measures of responsibility, effort attributions, and emotions (anger, sympathy). Results indicated qualified and subtle gender differences in attributions, emotions, and attribution--emotion associations, which are broadly consistent with the application of gendered moral orientations and instrumentality norms. These findings are discussed with respect to theorizing about gender differences in attribution processes and emotional support behavior.

Perceptions of the Woman Who Breastfeeds: The Role of Erotophobia, Sexism, and Attitudinal Variables

Perceptions of breastfeeding women were studied in a sample of 201 predominately European American college students. Both men and women had very positive perceptions of breastfeeding women as compared to bottlefeeding women. As predicted, erotophobic women and men had less favorable impressions of the breastfeeding woman than did erotophilic individuals. Men, but not women, who scored high on Glick and Fiske's Benevolent Sexism or Hostile Sexism scales (Glick & Fiske, 1996) had more favorable impressions of the breastfeeding woman than did those with low scores. As predicted, this effect was larger for Benevolent Sexism than for Hostile Sexism. No relationships were found between impressions of breastfeeding women and the Hostility Toward Women Scale (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1995) or the Trait Guilt and Moral Standards scales (Jones, Schratter, & Kugler, 2000). The results supported hypotheses that sexualization of the breast, discomfort with sexual stimuli, and sexist attitudes are related to perceptions of the breastfeeding woman.

Culture and alexithymia: Mean levels, correlates and the role of parental socialization of emotions.

Two studies examined the relationship between culture and alexithymia. In Study 1, mean levels and correlates of alexithymia were examined in 3 cultures: European American (EA), Asian American (AA), and Malaysian college students. Both Asian groups had higher alexithymia levels than the EA group. Somatization was more strongly associated with alexithymia in the Asian groups than in the EA group. Mood and life satisfaction were associated with alexithymia in similar ways across groups. In Study 2, the relations among culture, gender, retrospective reports of parental socialization of emotions, and alexithymia were examined among EA and AA college students. Cultural and gender differences were found in alexithymia and emotion socialization levels. Most important, parental emotion socialization mediated the relations among culture, gender, and alexithymia.

Cultural preferences for formal versus intuitive reasoning

The authors examined cultural preferences for formal versus intuitive reasoning among East Asian (Chinese and Korean), Asian American, and European American university students. We investigated categorization (Studies 1 and 2), conceptual structure (Study 3), and deductive reasoning (Studies 3 and 4). In each study a cognitive conflict was activated between formal and intuitive strategies of reasoning. European Americans, more than Chinese and Koreans, set aside intuition in favor of formal reasoning. Conversely, Chinese and Koreans relied on intuitive strategies more than European Americans. Asian Americans’ reasoning was either identical to that of European Americans, or intermediate. Differences emerged against a background of similar reasoning tendencies across cultures in the absence of conflict between formal and intuitive strategies.

Cultural preferences for formal versus intuitive reasoning

AbstractThe authors examined cultural preferences for formal versus intuitive reasoning among East Asian (Chinese and Korean), Asian American, and European American university students. We investigated categorization (Studies 1 and 2), conceptual structure (Study 3), and deductive reasoning (Studies 3 and 4). In each study a cognitive conflict was activated between formal and intuitive strategies of reasoning. European Americans, more than Chinese and Koreans, set aside intuition in favor of formal reasoning. Conversely, Chinese and Koreans relied on intuitive strategies more than European Americans. Asian Americans' reasoning was either identical to that of European Americans, or intermediate. Differences emerged against a background of similar reasoning tendencies across cultures in the absence of conflict between formal and intuitive strategies.

The Utility of Measures of Self-Efficacy for the Holland Themes in African American and European American College Students

Three inventories of self-efficacy or confidence with respect to the six Holland themes were compared in samples of European American and African American college students. Results indicated that the reliabilities of all subscales were sufficiently high for use in research and that all subscales were as reliable for African Americans as for European Americans. There were significant gender differences in confidence levels but few race differences. A multitrait-multimethod analysis indicated differential degrees of convergent and discriminant validity and the presence of method variance across the scales examined herein.

Optimism, pessimism, affectivity, and psychological adjustment in US and Korea: a test of a mediation model

Previous research has indicated that cognitive and affective variables play an important role in models of psychological adjustment. However, the examination of such variables across different cultural groups has remained a neglected issue. Accordingly, this study assessed the role of outcome expectancies (optimism and pessimism) and affectivity (positive and negative affect) as predictors of psychological adjustment (life satisfaction and depressive symptoms) in a sample of 294 South Korean and 320 European American college students. Consistent with the mapping of self-criticism and self-enhancement to Easterners and Westerners, respectively, Koreans compared to European Americans were found to report greater negative affectivity and depressive symptoms. In contrast, European Americans compared to Koreans were found to report greater positive affectivity and life satisfaction. Moreover, results of path analyses examining a model of affectivity as a mediator of the link between outcome expectancies and psychological adjustment provided additional evidence for cultural differences. Implications of the present findings for understanding psychological adjustment in Easterners versus Westerners are discussed.

Spirituality and Academic Performance among African American College Students

This study examines spirituality and religious participation among African American and European American college students. Although the terms spirituality and religious participation have been used interchangeably in some research literature, this study measured them as two distinct constructs. Of particular interest was the relationship between these variables and academic performance. A questionnaire developed by the research team was administered to 192 (109 European American, 83 African American) college students. Findings were consistent with previous research suggesting that African Americans have higher levels of spiritual beliefs and religious participation than European Americans do. Correlation analyses suggested that spiritual beliefs and religious participation were positively related to academic performance for both groups; however, pattern of the relationship was different. Beliefs and participation were salient for African Americans, whereas participation was salient for European Americans. The study raises the important questions of how to incorporate spirituality into programming as well as treatment and interventions.

Gendered Reminiscence Practices and Self-Definition in Late Adolescence

The purpose of this study was to examine gender differences in the emotional construction of life-threatening events (LTEs) that were chosen as self-defining by late adolescents. European American college students (41 women, 25 men) whose average age was 19 were selected from a larger sample (n = 139) because they reported at least 1 LTE among 3 self-defining memories. Memory narratives were elicited with a questionnaire (Singer & Moffitt, 1991–1992) and coded for emotional position. As expected, tough, action-packed positions were more prevalent in men's narratives, and compassionate positions were more prevalent in women's narratives. Unexpectedly, narratives that emphasized one's own vulnerability (fear or sadness) were equally prevalent for men and women, and women's emotional discourse was more conditional upon type of event, i.e., deaths vs. assaults. Findings provide the most explicit evidence to date that some gendered reminiscence practices found in prior studies of children are reflected in late adolescents' self-defining reminiscences. Implications are also discussed for a more situated understanding of gendered reminiscence pratices and for theories of identity development.

Goals, Culture, and Subjective Well-Being

The present studies examined the role of independent and interdependent goal pursuits in the subjective well-being (SWB) of Asian and European American college students. In Study 1, the authors found that independent goal pursuit (i.e., goal pursuit for fun and enjoyment) increased the benefit of goal attainment on SWB among European Americans but not among Asian Americans. In Study 2, the authors found that interdependent goal pursuit (i.e., goal pursuit to please parents and friends) increased the benefit of goal attainment on the SWB of Asian Americans, whereas it did not increase the benefit of goal attainment on the SWB of European Americans. In Study 3, the authors found that whereas interdependent goal pursuit increased the benefit of goal attainment, independent goal pursuit did not increase the benefit of goal attainment among Japanese college students. Altogether, the present findings suggest that independent and interdependent goal pursuits result in divergent affective consequences across cultures.