Euphrates And Tigris Research Articles

The geological origin of the Umm Al-Binni Lake within the Ahwar of Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq

The Umm Al-Binni Lake is one of the well-known lakes within the Ahwar of southern Mesopotamia in Iraq. It is located about 45 km north of the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The Umm Al-Binni Lake has been postulated as a-meteorite-impact crater, particularly by geo-archeologists, based on indices such as shape, size, depth, and the presence of a perceived lake-rim structure. However, no unambiguous evidence of such an impact has been put forward to date though. The lake measures 3.4 km in diameter, and it has a polygonal shape, with a maximum depth of 3 m. The age of the alleged crater was estimated to be less than 5000 years (or earlier than 3000 BC), based on the reported deposition rates of the Tigris–Euphrates delta sediments as a result of the Holocene sea-level changes of the Arabian Gulf during that time around the Umm Al-Binni Lake area. In the current study, using geophysical data and remote-sensing techniques investigates the origin of the Umm Al-Binni Lake. The results of magnetic and gravity analyses showed that the Ahwar area of southern Mesopotamia, including the Umm Al-Binni Lake, was subjected to the differential subsidence of the basement faulted blocks, as the distribution of the lakes is mostly controlled by such basement tectonic zones of weakness. Satellite imagery also showed some evidence of anthropogenic activity that contributed to the shaping of the southern sector of the Lake rim, which locally displays an angular shape. None of the latter evidence could support any meteorite-impact origin for the Umm Al-Binni Lake.

Satellite altimetry for measuring river stages in remote regions

The advent in satellite altimetry with the most accurate satellite radar altimeter since 1992 and its successive missions have enabled the routine global monitoring of water-level (or stage) for surface waters and changes in the quantities of dammed water reservoirs. However, satellite altimeter measurements typically have spatial resolution capable of observing only large water bodies, such as major lakes and rivers. This paper addresses the challenges of how to investigate water levels in medium (~ 1 km in width) to small (~ 100 m and narrower) rivers. Comparisons between the ENVISAT altimetry ICE-1 waveform retracking height and standard water-level measurements for multiple sections of Ohio River, Columbia River, and Red River of the North in the United States (US) reveals that the satellite altimetry measured water levels agree well with those observed at nearby US Geological Survey gaging stations over the 10-year period starting from 2002. The significant results include those obtained at Thompson, North Dakota (ND, correlation coefficient or R value of 0.76 between satellite and in situ water-level measurements) and Fargo, ND (R = 0.74), where the stream channels of Red River are merely ~ 50 m and ~ 40 m wide, respectively, under normal climatic conditions. In addition, demonstrations of the approach over largely inaccessible portions of Tigris–Euphrates Rivers and Helmand River in the Middle East aided in understanding hydrology in these systems. This study demonstrates the ability of satellite radar altimetry to characterize rivers in these study regions which are much narrower than 100 m in width.

Generation of a Historical Weapon Ge and Its Impacts on Huaxia Culture

The history of Huaxia (Chinese: , a historical concept representing the Chinese nation and civi-lization) is full of wars. Various weapons were developed that are suitable for ground combat with horse-drawn vehicles. The weapon Ge (Chinese: ) was already used before 221 BC (before the Qin Dynasty, ca. 221–206 BC), and disappeared in around 25 AD (at the end of Western Han Dynasty). In most other regions in the world, this type of weapon has hardly been used. The weapon axe was used in the ancient wars (in the same period) outside Ancient China (also called the Middle King-dom), such as in Mesopotamia (the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system). However, the weapon axe is different from Ge, although there seem some similarities. This article provides an in-depth study and analysis of the reasons for the historic use of this unique weapon Ge, of its development in Ancient China, and of its influence on (military and civil) culture.

Retrieving Groundwater Depletion and Drought in the Tigris‐Euphrates Basin Between 2003 and 2015

Quantitative estimates of the groundwater depletion and droughts in the Tigris-Euphrates Basin (TEB) can be useful for sustainably managing its water resources. Here, data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission are used to infer the monthly changes in the total water storage of the TEB from January 2003 to December 2015. Additionally, the data of altimetry and output from land surface models are used to remove the contributions from lake water changes and other hydrological factors to obtain the total groundwater depletion (TGWD), human-driven groundwater depletion (HGWD), and climate-driven groundwater depletion. We conclude that an alarming rate of decrease in the total water storage and the loss of TGWD have an "accelerating" trend, as the trend during 2007 to 2015 was 3.6 times that during 2003 to 2006. Moreover, the HGWD is 116.09 Gt, which accounts for 98% of the TGWD. Finally, the total storage deficit index (TSDI) is derived from the GRACE data to characterize the drought of the TEB. The results show that TSDI agrees well with the actual drought rather than the Palmer drought severity index (PDSI) and that the TEB has been undergoing a severe drought since September 2007 according to both the TSDI and PDSI. The research in this study provides an effective and unique method for understanding the hydrological processes and sustainable use of water resources in regions or countries with little data, which is essential for more efficient, sustainable, and cross-boundary cooperative water resource management.

“Arap Baharı” Sonrası Dönemde Fırat-Dicle Uyuşmazlığı

The water conflict
 between Iraq, Syria and Turkey that has continued since the 1960s has entered a
 mutually-hurting stalemate due to increasing populations, drought and
 agricultural-energy needs in the basin. While the conflict that centers around
 the status and use of rivers escalated to the level of military threats during
 certain periods, it has not evolved into any military conflict or the use of
 water in a life-threating way. Yet, a final agreement has not been reached even
 during the raproachement period between Syria and Turkey in the 2000s. Based on
 this premises, our paper underlines that the conflict has been going through a
 structural transformation in the “post-Arab Spring” era. The capture of some
 strategic lands and dams along the Euphrates-Tigris basin by Daesh/ISIS and
 PYD-YPG, as well as by the Northern Iraqi Kurds, who are preparing to declare
 independence, indicate that new state and non-state actors may become primary
 parties in this conflict. Furthermore, the use of water as a lethal weapon in
 the Iraqi and Syrian civil wars signify another important development. This
 paper concludes that the resolution of this conflict has become less likely due
 to the increasing number of parties and issues.

Diversity, mitochondrial phylogeny, and ichthyogeography of the Capoeta capoeta complex (Teleostei: Cyprinidae)

Fish species of the genus Capoeta are known for their special mouth morphology (inferior mouth with the horny edge to the lower jaw), short dorsal fin with seven to nine branched rays, and their tumultuous taxonomic history. The genus Capoeta has had a complex evolutionary history with high diversification in the Middle East and is closely related with genus Luciobarbus. Earlier attempts to clarify the complex taxonomy of the group established four species groups, namely C. capoeta, C. damascina, C. tinca, and C. trutta species group. Based on this study, the C. capoeta group currently includes nine taxa (seven previous + two newly included members) and all reviewed in this paper based on morphological characters and mitochondrial genes. Capoeta macrolepis, revalidated as a distinct species, and Capoeta fusca are additional members of the C. capoeta group. Molecular time tree shows that the separation of Capoeta from its relative Luciobarbus was about 12.43–16.99 MYA. Based on the time tree presented herein, the high diversity of Capoeta in the Tigris–Euphrates system, the nesting of Capoeta within the tetraploid Luciobarbus in the mitochondrial trees and the high diversity of Luciobarbus in the Tigris–Euphrates system, it is proposed that the origination and diversification of Capoeta occurred in the palaeo-drainages of the Tigris–Euphrates system. From here, dispersion of Capoeta to the other nearby basins could have been possible through freshwater corridors during the Pliocene or Pleistocene.

Water Conflicts in a Historical Perspective. Environmental Factors in the Middle East Crisis

Abstract This article analyses the importance of a water crisis in causing conflict, the use of water as a weapon and the environmental impact of wars, in the Middle East. In a context of increasing water scarcity, influenced by morphological constraints, population growth, economic development and diplomatic disputes between the riparian states of the Euphrates-Tigris basin, global climate change has caused a long period of drought that, in turn, exacerbated the preexistent situation and triggered conflict. In this war, Islamic State's strategies and tactics revolve around water, by using it as a weapon, as a mean for spreading terror, as a source for profit and as a political tool to legitimise its pseudo-State claims. Finally, this kind of war gravely harms the already critical environmental situation of the region and it is gradually going to make water the main purpose of conflicts.

Water Scarcity as a Non-traditional Threat to Security in the Middle East

The article aims to explore the securitisation of water in the Nile basin. As in the wider Middle East, the securitisation of water occurred in the context of larger political grievances, inherited from colonial times. The trigger in all cases has been water scarcity. The securitising actors in all cases were decision-makers; in the case of the Tigris–Euphrates basin, NGOs and human rights activists have also emerged as securitising actors. The target audiences in all cases included the national public and international public opinion, as well as decision-makers in donor countries, especially in the case of the Tigris–Euphrates and Nile basins. Several securitisation mechanisms have been used simultaneously in all cases; in the case of the West Bank Aquifer, for example, resource capture (structural securitisation) went hand in hand with joint water management committees (institutional securitisation). In all cases, language played a crucial role in the securitisation of water resources, especially in the cases of Egypt and Israel, where the symbolic value of water and land are closely tied with religious traditions inherited from ancient times.

Molecular phylogeny of the tribe Torini Karaman, 1971 (Actinopterygii: Cypriniformes) from the Middle East and North Africa.

Freshwater fishes of the cyprinid tribe Torini are widespread in Africa the Middle East and Indomalaya. The relationships of Middle-Eastern Torini are analysed based on mitochondrial markers (Cytb, ND4) of the majority of relevant species. I present a larely well resolved phylogeny, which confirms the validity of the morphologically defined genera Arabibarbus, Carasobarbus, Mesopotamichthys and Pterocapoeta. The Torini originated in Indomalaya and colonised Africa via the Middle East. Morocco was colonised two times independently, first from sub-Saharan Africa and secondly along the southern margin of the Mediterranean Sea. The Tigris-Euphrates system is an important crossroad for the colonisation of the Jordan River, the Orontes River and the watercourses of the Arabian Peninsula by freshwater fishes. The Jordan lost its connection to the Euphrates earlier than the Orontes. The Arabian Peninsula was colonised from the Tigris-Euphrates system in at least two independent events.

Spatial and temporal patterns of precipitation and stream flow variations in Tigris-Euphrates river basin

Tigris and Euphrates river basin (TERB) is one of the largest river basins in the Middle East, and the precipitation (in the form of snowfall) is a major source of streamflow. This study investigates the spatial and temporal variability of precipitation and streamflow in TERB to better understand the hydroclimatic variables and how they varied over time. The precipitation shows a decreasing trend with 1980s being wetter and 2000s being drier. A total of 55 and 40% reduction in high flows in Tigris and Euphrates rivers at T20 and E3 was seen in post-reservoir period. A lag time of 3 to 4 and 5 to 6months was estimated between peak snowfall and runoff time periods. Decreasing precipitation and streamflow along with several planned dams could hamper the sustainability of several Mesopotamian marshlands that completely depend on the water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Transboundary Environmental Impact Assessment of Large Dams in the Euphrates–Tigris Region: An Analysis of International Law Binding Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey

The Euphrates–Tigris river system is among the most intensely developed freshwater resources worldwide. At the centre of its development are large‐scale dams supplying extensive irrigation schemes and hydroelectric power plants, which substantially impact the river system's dynamic and water quality. Due to the international dimension of the utilization of cross‐border freshwater systems, the impacts of the freshwater developments of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey can only be effectively addressed by environmental impact assessment (EIA), which takes into account transboundary effects. Since domestic EIA regulations of the Euphrates–Tigris riparian States pay little attention to transboundary effects, and no treaty would commit them to transboundary EIA in respect to the river system, such a requirement may only derive from customary international law. This article will show to what extent transboundary EIA is required by customary international law and how far these provisions bind the Euphrates–Tigris riparian States.

Hydro-Politics of the Tigris and Euphrates Basins

The supply of fresh water is essential to life, socioeconomic development, and political stability in Middle East. Turkey, Syria and Iraq are the main riparian countries in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Turkey is the riparian hegemon for a long time due to its structural power and dominant river position. Iraq and Syria are the lower countries in the basin and for this reason they always like to ensure the quantity of water required to satisfy their requirements. The conflict between riparian countries is due to several factors. These are: population growth rate and food security, energy security, economic and technological development, political fragmentation, international water laws, water and management availability and public awareness. There have been a number of attempts to find a common ground on water issues between the main three riparian countries since 1920 but no agreement signed yet. Present situation is very bad in Syria and Iraq where thousands of people have no access to water and farmers are leaving their land because of draught. Such situation will definitely raise tension and might lead to war. To avoid this, a mediator that has the capability to bring all countries concerned to the negotiation table is required. In addition, Syria and Iraq are to adopt prudent strategic plan based on resources development theory to ensure good water management and minimum water loses.

Hydroelectric Energy Potential of Turkey: A Refined Calculation Method

Turkey is one of the countries with high hydroelectric energy potential, but today only 35 % of this potential is functional. This is due to its geographic position at subtropical climate region with upstream of Euphrates–Tigris Basin. In general, classical calculation methodologies are used for hydropower potential assessments. This paper explains the hydroelectric energy policy and potential of Turkey and suggests a more refined calculation method on the basis of hypsographic curve. Furthermore, currently used hydropower potential calculation formulations are revised in detail, and a new calculation method referred to as the energy tree (ET) is explained and applied to actual data from upper Euphrates River main branch, the Murat River. Comparison of the numerical results in terms of relative error indicates that ET yields about 0.4 % improvement over the DP and about 6.5 % over the SP methods. This means that ET method yields better refined results than the existing methodologies.

First Record of Piscicola geometra (Annelida, Hirudinea) on some Species of Cyprinidae from Euphrates-Tigris Basin in Turkey

First Record of Piscicola geometra (Annelida, Hirudinea) on some Species of Cyprinidae from Euphrates-Tigris Basin in Turkey

Application of International Water Law in Eden: Environmental Protection of the Mesopotamian Marshes in Southern Iraq

Southern Iraq’s Mesopotamian Marshes are fed by the Tigris and Euphrates watercourses. Conflicts in the Tigris-Euphrates Basin over water use and quality are among the most contentious in the world. Increased upstream water withdrawals exacerbated by desertification and regional changes in precipitation and temperature have created a serious water shortage that is becoming increasingly severe. These wetlands need cooperation, reasonable use, and no harm by all watercourse states, especially Turkey, in order to guarantee their survival and conservation. Recent history has not been kind to the Mesopotamian Marshes of southern Iraq or the people that inhabit them. The area has been the scene of three wars and military conflicts over water.

Water–energy–food nexus in a transboundary context: the Euphrates–Tigris river basin as a case study

The interlinkage between water, energy and food security and its transboundary relevance is becoming increasingly important. The paper analyses the evolution of transboundary water resources management in the Euphrates–Tigris basin with specific reference to interlinkages between water, food and energy policies at national and transboundary levels, and it explores how the policy shifts at the highest decision-making level have served to produce synergies for cooperation among the riparians or vice versa.

Water Works Through Four Millenia in Turkey

Turkey is one of the foremost open-air museums of the world with regard to historical water works from the last 4000 years. Some of them are still in operation after several centuries or even several millennia. There are remains of dams, irrigation canals, and water collection structures dating back to the IInd millenium BC, the Hittite period in Central Anatolia. Several dams, irrigation canals, qanats date back to the first half of the Ist millenium BC, the Urartu period in Eastern Anatolia. Long-distance water conveyance systems, pipes, masonry canals, inverted siphons, tunnels, dams date back to the second half of the Ist millenium BC and the Ist millenium AD, the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods in Western and Southern Anatolia. Some dams, canals, watermills date back to the 11th to 14th centuries, the Seljukide period in Central and Eastern Anatolia. Several dams, irrigation canals, long distance water conveyance systems date back to the 14th to early 20th centuries, the Ottoman period in Turkey. Based on this tradition from four millenia, the modern Republic of Turkey, founded in 1923, is continuing to develop her water resources. The South-eastern Anatolia Project, encompassing the Euphrates-Tigris basin in Turkey, is the most interesting example.

Projected river discharge in the Euphrates–Tigris Basin from a hydrological discharge model forced with RCM and GCM outputs

The hydrological discharge (HD) model of Max Planck Institute for Meteorology is forced by a variety of climate model datasets to investigate the future of discharge in the Euphrates−Tigris Basin. The data include daily time series of surface runoff and sub-surface runoff outputs of 2 global climate models (GCMs) (the SRES A1B scenario simulation of ECHAM5/MPIOM and the RCP 4.5 scenario simulation of MPI-ESM-LR) and the dynamically downscaled outputs of ECHAM5/MPIOM and NCAR-CCSM3 scenario (SRES A1FI, A2 and B1) simulations. The suite of simulations enables a comprehensive analysis of the projected river dis- charge, and allows a comparison between CMIP5 simulations of MPI-ESM-LR and CMIP3 results from its predecessor ECHAM5/MPIOM on a basin scale. We demonstrate that HD simulations forced with relatively low-resolution GCM outputs are not good at reproducing the seasonal cycle of discharge, which is typically characterized by less flow in the peak season and an earlier peak in annual discharge. Simulations forced with the MPI-ESM-LR yield more robust information on the annual cycle and timing of the annual peak discharge than ECHAM5-forced simulations. In contrast to GCM-forced simulations, high-resolution RCM-forced simulations reproduce the annual cycle of discharge reasonably well; however, overestimation of discharge during the cold season and bias in the timing of springtime snowmelt peaks persist in the RCM-forced simula- tions. Different RCM-forced scenario simulations indicate substantial decreases in mean annual discharge for the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers by the end of the century, ranging from 19−58%. Significant temporal shifts to earlier days (3−5 wk by the end of the 21st century) in the center time of the discharges are also projected for these rivers. As the basin is considered water-stressed and the region is strongly influenced by water-scarcity events, these unfavorable changes may potentially increase water disputes among the basin countries.

Growth and reproduction of Cyprinion macrostomus (Heckel, 1843) and Cyprinion kais (Heckel, 1843) populations in Karakaya Dam Lake (Euphrates River), Turkey

This study investigated the age-length relationship, length-weight relationship, somatic condition, gonadosomatic index, and reproduction properties of Cyprinion macrostomus and Cyprinion kais. C. Kais is an endemic species included on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in the Tigris-Euphrates Basin. A total of 153 C. Macrostomus and 114 C. Kais were collected. The estimated length-weight relationships were W = 0.725 × FL2.92 (r2 = 0.87) for C. Macrostomus and W = 0.417 × FL3.02 (r2 = 0.93) for C. Kais. The age-length relationships were Lt = 15.0 [1 - e-0.212 (t + 0.407)] and Lt = 15.4 [1 - e-0.205 (t + 0.503)] for C. Macrostomus and C. Kais, respectively. Mean fecundity ranged from 313 to 1647.08 eggs/fish for C. Macrostomus and from 295.1 to 1255.2 eggs/fish for C. Kais. Mean oocyte diameter ranged between 0.13 and 1.34 mm for C. Macrostomus and between 0.14 and 0.86 mm for C. Kais. Based on gonadosomatic index, the spawning periods of C. Macrostomus and C. Kais were determined to be between June and August in the area of the study.

Impact of climate variability on precipitation in the Upper Euphrates–Tigris Rivers Basin of Southeast Turkey

This paper evaluates changes in precipitation in the upper the Euphrates–Tigris basin enclosing the whole area of Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP), which is the largest investment for regional development in the history of Turkey and the fourth largest irrigation project in the world. For this purpose, the analyses are based on new data sequences formed by summing up monthly precipitation of 19 stations in the study area at seven different time scales. The Mann–Kendal (MK) and Theil–Sen Slope estimator (TSE) statistics to detect the direction and magnitude of an available monotonic trend in any given data, respectively, were used for the statistical analysis of the new data sequences. Besides, the sequential version of Mann–Kendal rank test (SVMK) to detect the approximate starting point of a trend was also applied the data set of the stations with significant monotonic trend. The monotonic trend was detected at 63% of the stations (12 of 19 stations) for the different time scales at 5% significance level. The stations with positive and negative or insignificant precipitation trends were scattered in the different parts of the basin. The significant trends were found in six stations with respect to the critical value (±2.33) from the standard normal distribution for one-sided hypothesis at 1% significance level. The TSE results for 12 stations with monotonic trend at different time scales varied from −2.36mm to 2.51mm per year. Of the six stations, the maximum decrease (−72.5%) and increase (166.9%) in the percent change (PC) were determined in Agri and Bitlis stations, respectively. The approximate starting points of upward and downward trend for Kilis, Sirnak, Agri, Elazig, Bitlis and Siirt stations were at about 1980, 1979, 1987, 1986, 1984 and 1965 with respect to the SVMK test, respectively. According to the results obtained from the previous studies, the river basin is affected by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and global warming. Therefore, it is very likely that the NAO and global warming have been contributing to changes in precipitation of the river basin.