Eukaryotic Evolution Research Articles

Contrasting modes of macro and microsynteny evolution in a eukaryotic subphylum

Examination of the changes in order and arrangement of homologous genes is key for understanding the mechanisms of genome evolution in eukaryotes. Previous comparisons between eukaryotic genomes have revealed considerable conservation across species that diverged hundreds of millions of years ago (e.g., vertebrates,1,2,3 bilaterian animals,4,5 and filamentous fungi6). However, understanding how genome organization evolves within and between eukaryotic major lineages remains underexplored. We analyzed high-quality genomes of 120 representative budding yeast species (subphylum Saccharomycotina) spanning ∼400 million years of eukaryotic evolution to examine how their genome organization evolved and to compare it with the evolution of animal and plant genome organization.7 We found that the decay of both macrosynteny (the conservation of homologous chromosomes) and microsynteny (the conservation of local gene content and order) was strongly associated with evolutionary divergence across budding yeast major clades. However, although macrosynteny decayed very fast, within ∼100 million years, the microsynteny of many genes-especially genes in metabolic clusters (e.g., in the GAL gene cluster8)-was much more deeply conserved both within major clades and across the subphylum. We further found that when genomes with similar evolutionary divergence times were compared, budding yeasts had lower macrosynteny conservation than animals and filamentous fungi but higher conservation than angiosperms. In contrast, budding yeasts had levels of microsynteny conservation on par with mammals, whereas angiosperms exhibited very low conservation. Our results provide new insight into the tempo and mode of the evolution of gene and genome organization across an entire eukaryotic subphylum.

Evidence of transient oxygenation in the Mesoproterozoic ocean from the Yanshan Basin, North China

Predominantly anoxic conditions with a heterogeneous stratified water column are widely accepted for the Mesoproterozoic ocean. However, transient and episodic oxygenation during the Mesoproterozoic has been recently hypothesized, which may have been an important trigger for eukaryote evolution. In this study, we analyzed the Ce anomalies of the Gaoyuzhuang and Hongshuizhuang formations in North China, to investigate the Earth’s surface environment during the Mesoproterozoic. Our data of negative Ce anomalies in the Gaoyuzhuang and Hongshuizhuang formations, reaching 0.73 and 0.84, respectively, suggest transient oxygenations of the surface environment. We applied a CeN/CeN* depth model to quantify these transient oxygenations and the results suggest that the atmospheric oxygen level would have increased by 0.01–0.03% present atmospheric level (PAL), 0.02–0.05% PAL, and 0.1–0.4% PAL, with the respective initial levels of 0.05% PAL, 0.1% PAL, and 1% PAL, in the Gaoyuzhuang and Hongshuizhuang formations. Our results suggest that although oxygen levels in the Mesoproterozoic were low, transient oxygenation may have occurred in the surface ocean, which would have provided vital niches for the evolution of eukaryotes.

Sequences and proteins that influence mRNA processing in Trypanosoma brucei: Evolutionary conservation of SR-domain and PTB protein functions.

Spliced leader trans splicing is the addition of a short, capped sequence to the 5' end of mRNAs. It is widespread in eukaryotic evolution, but factors that influence trans splicing acceptor site choice have been little investigated. In Kinetoplastids, all protein-coding mRNAs are 5' trans spliced. A polypyrimidine tract is usually found upstream of the AG splice acceptor, but there is no branch point consensus; moreover, splicing dictates polyadenylation of the preceding mRNA, which is a validated drug target. We here describe a trans splicing reporter system that can be used for studies and screens concerning the roles of sequences and proteins in processing site choice and efficiency. Splicing was poor with poly(U) tracts less than 9 nt long, and was influenced by an intergenic region secondary structure. A screen for signals resulted in selection of sequences that were on average 45% U and 35% C. Tethering of either the splicing factor SF1, or the cleavage and polyadenylation factor CPSF3 within the intron stimulated processing in the correct positions, while tethering of two possible homologues of Opisthokont PTB inhibited processing. In contrast, tethering of SR-domain proteins RBSR1, RBSR2, or TSR1 or its interaction partner TSR1IP, promoted use of alternative signals upstream of the tethering sites. RBSR1 interacts predominantly with proteins implicated in splicing, whereas the interactome of RBSR2 is more diverse. Our selectable constructs are suitable for screens of both sequences, and proteins that affect mRNA processing in T. brucei. Our results suggest that the functions of PTB and SR-domain proteins in splice site definition may already have been present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor.

Translational reprogramming in response to accumulating stressors ensures critical threshold levels of Hsp90 for mammalian life

The cytosolic molecular chaperone Hsp90 is essential for eukaryotic life. Although reduced Hsp90 levels correlate with aging, it was unknown whether eukaryotic cells and organisms can tune the basal Hsp90 levels to alleviate physiologically accumulated stress. We have investigated whether and how mice adapt to the deletion of three out of four alleles of the two genes encoding cytosolic Hsp90, with one Hsp90β allele being the only remaining one. While the vast majority of such mouse embryos die during gestation, survivors apparently manage to increase their Hsp90β protein to at least wild-type levels. Our studies reveal an internal ribosome entry site in the 5’ untranslated region of the Hsp90β mRNA allowing translational reprogramming to compensate for the genetic loss of Hsp90 alleles and in response to stress. We find that the minimum amount of total Hsp90 required to support viability of mammalian cells and organisms is 50–70% of what is normally there. Those that fail to maintain a threshold level are subject to accelerated senescence, proteostatic collapse, and ultimately death. Therefore, considering that Hsp90 levels can be reduced ≥100-fold in the unicellular budding yeast, critical threshold levels of Hsp90 have markedly increased during eukaryotic evolution.

Brain Metabolic DNA: A Long Story and Some Conclusions.

We have previously outlined the main properties of brain metabolic DNA (BMD) and its involvement in circadian oscillations, learning, and post-trial sleep. The presence of BMD in certain subcellular fractions and their behavior in cesium gradients have suggested that BMD originates from cytoplasmic reverse transcription and subsequently acquires a double-stranded configuration. More recently, it has been reported that some DNA sequences of cytoplasmic BMD in learning mice are different from that of the control animals. Furthermore, BMD is located in vicinity of the genes involved in different modifications of synaptic activity, suggesting that BMD may contribute to the brain's response to the changing environment. The present review outlines recent data with a special emphasis on reverse transcription of BMD that may recapitulate the molecular events at the time of the "RNA world" by activating mitochondrial telomerase and generating RNA templates from mitochondrial transcripts. The latter unexpected role of mitochondria is likely to promote a better understanding of mitochondrial contribution to cellular interactions and eukaryotic evolution. An initial step regards the role of human mitochondria in embryonic BMD synthesis, which is exclusively of maternal origin. In addition, mitochondrial transcripts involved in reverse transcription of BMD might possibly reveal unexpected features elucidating mitochondrial involvement in cancer events and neurodegenerative disorders.

Tree2GD: a phylogenomic method to detect large-scale gene duplication events.

Whole-genome duplication events have long been discovered throughout the evolution of eukaryotes, contributing to genome complexity and biodiversity and leaving traces in the descending organisms. Therefore, an accurate and rapid phylogenomic method is needed to identify the retained duplicated genes on various lineages across the target taxonomy. Here, we present Tree2GD, an integrated method to identify large-scale gene duplication events by automatically perform multiple procedures, including sequence alignment, recognition of homolog, gene tree/species tree reconciliation, Ks distribution of gene duplicates and synteny analyses. Application of Tree2GD on 2 datasets, 12 metazoan genomes and 68 angiosperms, successfully identifies all reported whole-genome duplication events exhibited by these species, showing effectiveness and efficiency of Tree2GD on phylogenomic analyses of large-scale gene duplications. Tree2GD is written in Python and C++ and is available at https://github.com/Dee-chen/Tree2gd. Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Uncovering Pseudogenes and Intergenic Protein-coding Sequences in TriTryps' Genomes.

Trypanosomatids belong to a remarkable group of unicellular, parasitic organisms of the order Kinetoplastida, an early diverging branch of the phylogenetic tree of eukaryotes, exhibiting intriguing biological characteristics affecting gene expression (intronless polycistronic transcription, trans-splicing, and RNA editing), metabolism, surface molecules, and organelles (compartmentalization of glycolysis, variation of the surface molecules, and unique mitochondrial DNA), cell biology and life cycle (phagocytic vacuoles evasion and intricate patterns of cell morphogenesis). With numerous genomic-scale data of several trypanosomatids becoming available since 2005 (genomes, transcriptomes, and proteomes), the scientific community can further investigate the mechanisms underlying these unusual features and address other unexplored phenomena possibly revealing biological aspects of the early evolution of eukaryotes. One fundamental aspect comprises the processes and mechanisms involved in the acquisition and loss of genes throughout the evolutionary history of these primitive microorganisms. Here, we present a comprehensive in silico analysis of pseudogenes in three major representatives of this group: Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei, and Trypanosoma cruzi. Pseudogenes, DNA segments originating from altered genes that lost their original function, are genomic relics that can offer an essential record of the evolutionary history of functional genes, as well as clues about the dynamics and evolution of hosting genomes. Scanning these genomes with functional proteins as proxies to reveal intergenic regions with protein-coding features, relying on a customized threshold to distinguish statistically and biologically significant sequence similarities, and reassembling remnant sequences from their debris, we found thousands of pseudogenes and hundreds of open reading frames, with particular characteristics in each trypanosomatid: mutation profile, number, content, density, codon bias, average size, single- or multi-copy gene origin, number and type of mutations, putative primitive function, and transcriptional activity. These features suggest a common process of pseudogene formation, different patterns of pseudogene evolution and extant biological functions, and/or distinct genome organization undertaken by those parasites during evolution, as well as different evolutionary and/or selective pressures acting on distinct lineages.

Nitrogen Isotopes from the Neoproterozoic Liulaobei Formation, North China: Implications for Nitrogen Cycling and Eukaryotic Evolution

The nitrogen isotope compositions (δ15N) of sedimentary rocks can provide information about the nutrient N cycling and redox conditions that may have played important roles in biological evolution in Earth’s history. Although considerable δ15N data for the Precambrian have been published, there is a large gap during the early Neoproterozoic that restrains our understanding of the linkages among N cycling, ocean redox changes and biological evolution during this key period. Here, we report bulk δ15N and organic carbon isotope (δ13Corg) compositions as well as the total nitrogen (TN) and total organic carbon (TOC) contents from the Tonian fossiliferous Liulaobei Formation in the southern part of the North China Platform. The δ15N in the study section is dominated by very stable values centering around +4.3‰, which is moderately lower than in modern sediments (~ +6‰). These positive δ15N values were attributed to partial denitrification under low primary productivity (scenario 1) and/or denitrification coupled with dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) (scenario 2). In either case, the availability of fixed nitrogen may have provided the nutrient N required to facilitate facilitated eukaryotic growth. Our study highlights the pivotal role of nutrient N in the evolution of eukaryotes.

A stable and moderate nitrate pool in largely anoxic Mesoproterozoic oceans and implications for eukaryote evolution

The Mesoproterozoic (1.6–1.0 Ga) is a particularly important interval in Earth history that witnessed the initial radiation of eukaryotic life. Ocean anoxia and nutrient limitation has been invoked to explain the delayed expansion of more complex, multicellular eukaryotes during the Mesoproterozoic. However, pulsed oxygenation events and elevated nitrate availability have been identified in shallow marine settings. In deeper waters, however, nitrate availability and potential links to eukaryotic evolution remain poorly constrained. Here, we report an integrated geochemical study based on multiple proxies conducted on two new drill-core sections from the ∼1460 Ma Hongshuizhuang Formation and the ∼1380 Ma Xiamaling Formation, North China. Iron speciation and redox-sensitive trace element systematics suggest dominantly ferruginous to weakly euxinic water column conditions during deposition of both units. Our data are consistent with previous inferences of persistently anoxic deep water conditions in Mesoproterozoic oceans. Exclusively positive δ15N (+3.1 ± 0.8 ‰) values reveal the operation of partial denitrification in the water column, implying a relatively stable and moderate nitrate pool in offshore surface waters. Furthermore, a compilation of the Mesoproterozoic sedimentary δ15N record suggests a global nearshore to offshore oceanic nitrate gradient, with minimal but still bioavailable nitrate in offshore environments. The overall size of the nitrate pool was therefore apparently smaller than that of eukaryote-dominated modern oceans. Coupling Mesoproterozoic sedimentary δ15N data with fossil and biomarker records, we propose that this moderate level of nitrate may have been able to sustain a relatively low abundance of eukaryotic primary producers in the marine ecosystem, but was still not sufficient to trigger eukaryotic diversification and the rise of eukaryotes to ecological dominance.

Multiple Horizontal Acquisitions of Plant Genes in the Whitefly Bemisia tabaci.

The extent to which horizontal gene transfer (HGT) has shaped eukaryote evolution remains an open question. Two recent studies reported four plant-like genes acquired through two HGT events by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci, a major agricultural pest (Lapadula WJ, Mascotti ML, Juri Ayub M. 2020. Whitefly genomes contain ribotoxin coding genes acquired from plants. Sci Rep. 10(1):15503; Xia J, et al. 2021. Whitefly hijacks a plant detoxification gene that neutralizes plant toxins. Cell 184(7):1693-1705 e1617.). Here, we uncovered a total of 49 plant-like genes deriving from at least 24 independent HGT events in the genome of the Middle East Asia Minor 1 (MEAM1) whitefly. Orthologs of these genes are present in three cryptic B. tabaci species, they are phylogenetically nested within plant sequences, they are expressed and have evolved under purifying selection. The predicted functions of these genes suggest that most of them are involved in plant-insect interactions. Thus, substantial plant-to-insect HGT may have facilitated the evolution of B. tabaci toward adaptation to a large host spectrum. Our study shows that eukaryote-to-eukaryote HGT may be relatively common in some lineages and it provides new candidate genes that may be targeted to improve current control strategies against whiteflies.

The greening ashore.

More than half a billion years ago a streptophyte algal lineage began terraforming the terrestrial habitat and the Earth's atmosphere. This pioneering step enabled the subsequent evolution of all complex life on land, and the past decade has uncovered that many traits, both morphological and genetic, once thought to be unique to land plants, are conserved across some streptophyte algae. They provided the common ancestor of land plants with a repertoire of genes, of which many were adapted to overcome the new biotic and abiotic challenges. Exploring these molecular adaptations in non-tracheophyte species may help us to better prepare all green life, including our crops, for the challenges precipitated by the climate change of the Anthropocene because the challenges mostly differ by the speed with which they are now being met.

Natural phytochemicals that affect autophagy in the treatment of oral diseases and infections: A review.

Autophagy is a critical factor in eukaryotic evolution. Cells provide nutrition and energy during autophagy by destroying non-essential components, thereby allowing intracellular material conversion and managing temporary survival stress. Autophagy is linked to a variety of oral disorders, including the type and extent of oral malignancies. Furthermore, autophagy is important in lymphocyte formation, innate immunity, and the regulation of acquired immune responses. It is also required for immunological responses in the oral cavity. Knowledge of autophagy has aided in the identification and treatment of common oral disorders, most notably cancers. The involvement of autophagy in the oral immune system may offer a new understanding of the immune mechanism and provide a novel approach to eliminating harmful bacteria in the body. This review focuses on autophagy creation, innate and acquired immunological responses to autophagy, and the status of autophagy in microbial infection research. Recent developments in the regulatory mechanisms of autophagy and therapeutic applications in oral illnesses, particularly oral cancers, are also discussed. Finally, the relationship between various natural substances that may be used as medications and autophagy is investigated.

Secular variation in seawater redox state during the Marinoan Snowball Earth event and implications for eukaryotic evolution

Abstract The ocean is hypothesized to have been anoxic throughout the Marinoan “Snowball Earth” event, from ca. 649 to 635 Ma, with potentially catastrophic implications for the survival of eukaryotic life. However, the precise nature of ocean redox chemistry across this critical interval, and hence the factors that governed the persistence of eukaryotes, remains unknown. We report records of pyrite iron and sulfur isotopes, combined with Fe speciation, for glaciogenic diamictites from the Nantuo Formation of South China. These data provide constraints on seawater redox state across the Marinoan glaciation, and they reveal that the redox state of the ocean fluctuated in concert with waxing and waning extents of glaciation, to include intervals of expanded oxygenation. The input of meltwater-derived oxygen provides a potential explanation for the persistence of eukaryotes through the Cryogenian “Snowball Earth” events, which ultimately paved the way for subsequent intervals of rapid biological innovation.

Redbed formation in the redox-stratified mid-Proterozoic ocean

Deposition of iron-enriched redbeds occurred episodically on different continents throughout the mid-Proterozoic, but their origin remains unclear. Since these sediments host abundant Fe oxides, their occurrence potentially represents changes in ocean-redox state, a hypothesis having significant implications for the evolution of early aerobic eukaryotes. In the present study, we report Fe speciation and isotopes, major and trace elements, organic carbon contents, and mineralogy of the 1.6-Ga Cuizhuang and 1.4-Ga Xiamaling redbeds and intercalated non-redbeds in North China to investigate their depositional environments. As expected, the redbeds show significantly higher total Fe contents (FeT), FeT/Al, and FeHR/FeT ratios (FeHR: highly reactive Fe) than the adjacent non-redbeds (mean FeT: 5.0 % vs. 2.9 %), with 73–97 % of the FeHR in the form of Fe oxides (Feox), accounting for the difference in FeHR/FeT ratios. However, almost all other major (e.g., Al and Ti, typically associated with the detrital fraction) and trace elements show no obvious difference in concentrations between the redbeds and non-redbeds, supporting a single, shared detrital source. The FeT/Al and FeHR/FeT ratios of the redbeds are higher than their respective thresholds for anoxic conditions, whereas the non-redbeds show the opposite. We thus infer that the non-redbeds were deposited in a shallow oxic setting and the redbeds in a deep anoxic setting, separated by a pronounced Fe-redoxcline. The iron was mainly sourced from seafloor hydrothermal fluids and then partially oxidized and precipitated in shallow environments, resulting in positive Fe-isotope values (+0.24 to +0.57‰). Preservation of large amounts of Fe-(hydr)oxides within an anoxic setting can be explained through low-productivity conditions, as inferred from low TOC (mean 0.1 %) and P (mean 452 ppm) contents in both redbeds and non-redbeds. Based on this scenario, modeling indicates that the degree of fractionation of FeHR isotopes (+0.36 to +1.38‰) in the redbeds is consistent with oxidation of 66–98 % of the hydrothermally supplied Fe in waters with an average photic-zone O2 concentration of <0.1 μmol/L (equivalent to atmospheric pO2 < 0.1 % PAL), providing further evidence for extremely low O2 levels during the mid-Proterozoic.

Current Perspective of Fungi - A Review

Fungi are everywhere, in forest and fields in soils, in our buildings and in the biotech corporation. Fungi are a source of food and fascination to people. Fungi feed by digesting materials produced by animals and plants. Fungi have evolved remarkable metabolic versatility for utilizing diverse nutrient substrates for growth in their saprophytic, symbiotic and pathogenic lifestyles. Fungi regulate their metabolism according to environmental nutrient availability through elaborate transcription regulatory programs. The evolution of multicellular eukaryotes improved the dimensions and complexity of organisms, allowing them to exploit the terrestrial habitat. Fungi first advanced water however made the transition to the land through the development of specialized structures that prevented they’re drying out. First categorized as vegetation, fungi are now taken into consideration one of kind sufficient from plants to be located in a separate country and actually are greater like animals than plants. According to the current view animals occupy one of the seven or eight major branches of eukaryote life.

Global patterns and rates of habitat transitions across the eukaryotic tree of life

The successful colonization of new habitats has played a fundamental role during the evolution of life. Salinity is one of the strongest barriers for organisms to cross, which has resulted in the evolution of distinct marine and non-marine (including both freshwater and soil) communities. Although microbes represent by far the vast majority of eukaryote diversity, the role of the salt barrier in shaping the diversity across the eukaryotic tree is poorly known. Traditional views suggest rare and ancient marine/non-marine transitions but this view is being challenged by the discovery of several recently transitioned lineages. Here, we investigate habitat evolution across the tree of eukaryotes using a unique set of taxon-rich phylogenies inferred from a combination of long-read and short-read environmental metabarcoding data spanning the ribosomal DNA operon. Our results show that, overall, marine and non-marine microbial communities are phylogenetically distinct but transitions have occurred in both directions in almost all major eukaryotic lineages, with hundreds of transition events detected. Some groups have experienced relatively high rates of transitions, most notably fungi for which crossing the salt barrier has probably been an important aspect of their successful diversification. At the deepest phylogenetic levels, ancestral habitat reconstruction analyses suggest that eukaryotes may have first evolved in non-marine habitats and that the two largest known eukaryotic assemblages (TSAR and Amorphea) arose in different habitats. Overall, our findings indicate that the salt barrier has played an important role during eukaryote evolution and provide a global perspective on habitat transitions in this domain of life.

Melatonin-related signaling pathways and their regulatory effects in aging organisms.

Melatonin is a tryptophan-derived ancestral molecule evolved in bacteria. According to the endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic cells received mitochondria, plastids, and other organelles from bacteria by internalization. After the endosymbiosis, bacteria evolved into organelles and retained their ability of producing melatonin. Melatonin is a small, evolutionarily conserved indole with multiple receptor-mediated, receptor-dependent, and independent actions. Melatonin's initial function was likely a radical scavenger in bacteria that's why there was high intensity of free radicals on primitive atmosphere in the ancient times, and hormetic functions of melatonin, which are effecting through the level of gene expression via prooxidant and antioxidant redox pathways, are developed in throughout the eukaryotic evolution. In the earlier stages of life, endosymbiotic events between mitochondria and other downstream organelles continue with mutual benefits. However, this interaction gradually deteriorates as a result of the imperfection of both mitochondrial and extramitochondrial endosymbiotic crosstalk with the advancing age of eukaryotic organisms. Throughout the aging process melatonin levels tend to reduce and as a manifestation of this, many symptoms in organisms' homeostasis, such as deterioration in adjustment of cellular clocks, are commonly seen. In addition, due to deterioration in mitochondrial integrity and functions, immunity decreases, and lower levels of melatonin renders older individuals to be more susceptible to impaired redox modulation and age-related diseases. Our aim in this paper is to focus on the several redox modulation mechanisms in which melatonin signaling has a central role, to discuss melatonin's gerontological aspects and to provide new research ideas with researchers.

Phylogenomic Analyses of 2,786 Genes in 158 Lineages Support a Root of the Eukaryotic Tree of Life between Opisthokonts and All Other Lineages.

Advances in phylogenomics and high-throughput sequencing have allowed the reconstruction of deep phylogenetic relationships in the evolution of eukaryotes. Yet, the root of the eukaryotic tree of life remains elusive. The most popular hypothesis in textbooks and reviews is a root between Unikonta (Opisthokonta + Amoebozoa) and Bikonta (all other eukaryotes), which emerged from analyses of a single-gene fusion. Subsequent, highly cited studies based on concatenation of genes supported this hypothesis with some variations or proposed a root within Excavata. However, concatenation of genes does not consider phylogenetically-informative events like gene duplications and losses. A recent study using gene tree parsimony (GTP) suggested the root lies between Opisthokonta and all other eukaryotes, but only including 59 taxa and 20 genes. Here we use GTP with a duplication-loss model in a gene-rich and taxon-rich dataset (i.e., 2,786 gene families from two sets of 155 and 158 diverse eukaryotic lineages) to assess the root, and we iterate each analysis 100 times to quantify tree space uncertainty. We also contrasted our results and discarded alternative hypotheses from the literature using GTP and the likelihood-based method SpeciesRax. Our estimates suggest a root between Fungi or Opisthokonta and all other eukaryotes; but based on further analysis of genome size, we propose that the root between Opisthokonta and all other eukaryotes is the most likely.

Meiosis in allopolyploid Arabidopsis suecica

SUMMARYPolyploidy is a major force shaping eukaryote evolution but poses challenges for meiotic chromosome segregation. As a result, first‐generation polyploids often suffer from more meiotic errors and lower fertility than established wild polyploid populations. How established polyploids adapt their meiotic behaviour to ensure genome stability and accurate chromosome segregation remains an active research question. We present here a cytological description of meiosis in the model allopolyploid species Arabidopsis suecica (2n = 4x = 26). In large part meiosis in A. suecica is diploid‐like, with normal synaptic progression and no evidence of synaptic partner exchanges. Some abnormalities were seen at low frequency, including univalents at metaphase I, anaphase bridges and aneuploidy at metaphase II; however, we saw no evidence of crossover formation occurring between non‐homologous chromosomes. The crossover number in A. suecica is similar to the combined number reported from its diploid parents Arabidopsis thaliana (2n = 2x = 10) and Arabidopsis arenosa (2n = 2x = 16), with an average of approximately 1.75 crossovers per chromosome pair. This contrasts with naturally evolved autotetraploid A. arenosa, where accurate chromosome segregation is achieved by restricting crossovers to approximately 1 per chromosome pair. Although an autotetraploid donor is hypothesized to have contributed the A. arenosa subgenome to A. suecica, A. suecica harbours diploid A. arenosa variants of key meiotic genes. These multiple lines of evidence suggest that meiosis in the recently evolved allopolyploid A. suecica is essentially diploid like, with meiotic adaptation following a very different trajectory to that described for autotetraploid A. arenosa.

Small RNAs in Cnidaria: A review.

As fundamental components of RNA silencing, small RNA (sRNA) molecules ranging from 20 to 32 nucleotides in length have been found as potent regulators of gene expression and genome stability in many biological processes of eukaryotes. Three major small RNAs are active in animals, including the microRNA (miRNA), short interfering RNA (siRNA), and PIWI-interacting RNA (piRNA). Cnidarians, the sister group to bilaterians, are at a critical phylogenetic node to better model eukaryotic small RNA pathway evolution. To date, most of our understanding of sRNA regulation and its potential contribution to evolution has been limited to a few triploblastic bilaterian and plant models. The diploblastic nonbilaterians, including the cnidarians, are understudied in this regard. Therefore, this review will present the current-known small RNA information in cnidarians to enhance our understanding of the development of the small RNA pathways in early branch animals.