EU Strategy Research Articles

Open or closing doors? The influence of ‘digital sovereignty’ in the EU's Cybersecurity Strategy on cybersecurity of open-source software

‘Digital sovereignty’ is the geopolitical mantra of the moment. A key agent of that policy shift, the European Union (‘EU’) has increasingly embraced ‘digital sovereignty’ as both the ideological foundation and impetus for building its digital future in accordance with ‘European values and principles,’ often driven by and intersecting with cybersecurity concerns as articulated in its 2020 Cybersecurity Strategy for the Digital Decade (‘Strategy’). Yet it is impossible to consider cybersecurity without open-source software (‘OSS’). Increasingly, the EU, USA and other Governments have recognised that fact in the wake of HeartBleed and Log4j incidents. OSS’ decentralised governance and ubiquity, underpinning most software worldwide, may amplify vulnerabilities and adverse effects of cyberattacks, whilst its typically collaborative model of development and innovation often fosters valuable, open cybersecurity solutions.In navigating that policy tightrope of OSS as a double-edged sword for cybersecurity, the EU has adopted ‘closed’ language of ‘digital sovereignty’ that is ostensibly contrary to the ‘open’ nature of OSS. That rhetorical duality is particularly pronounced since the EU described OSS as a tool for realising its ‘digital sovereignty,’ in addition to policy support for ‘a global, open, interoperable cyberspace’ alongside the pursuit of ‘digital sovereignty.’ While there is a epistemic gap in understanding the relationship between the EU's rhetoric of ‘digital sovereignty’ and reality, nascent studies indicate that it has a tangible effect on policy change in multiple digital spheres, generally furthering a degree of ‘control.’ However, that relationship within the OSS cybersecurity context has underexplored and poorly understood, although that policy is a priority for the EU and may bear significant implications for OSS globally.Particularly analyzing the Cyber Resilience Act (‘CRA’) as key means for implementing the EU's Strategy and its first cybersecurity legislation that would comprehensively engage OSS if adopted by the Council, this article argues that the EU's desire to strengthening cybersecurity in OSS is generally welcome. Yet there is an ostensibly a disjunct between ‘digital sovereignty’ that underpins that legislation and OSS cybersecurity, with too much control of OSS potentially proving counterproductive for EU cybersecurity. This paper illustrates that (i) it is imperative for the EU to address OSS cybersecurity; (ii) yet the lens of digital sovereignty is ostensibly a rough fit for that approach, considering OSS’ philosophy and practice; and (iii) based on the CRA, EU's practice of translating ‘digital sovereignty’ into policy change is mixed, leaving uncertain ramifications for OSS cybersecurity in the EU and beyond. On the one hand, it moves towards more ‘control’ at least in determining definitional parameters and power dynamics with novel ‘stewardship’ positions for certain OSS entities. That said, the EU generally seeks to leverage OSS to further their regional embrace of OSS rather than to exclude others. Ultimately, the EU has a valuable leadership opportunity to drive forward solutions to OSS cybersecurity in collaboration with others whilst avoiding fragmentation, keeping doors open in recognising that global challenges demand global solutions. That is in its enlightened self-interest.

AXIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL AND LEGAL MECHANISM FOR THE CONVERGENCE OF EU ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF HEALTH POLICY

Abstract. The article addresses the issues of developing and implementing a unified strategy in the field of health policy and medical law in the European Union. The main focus is on analyzing differences between national legislations, assessing the institutional capacity of member states to adapt European standards, and studying the impact of a unified strategy on pan-European health effectiveness. Particular attention is given to the role of the European Parliament in shaping health policy and the potential of technological innovations to improve the quality of medical services. The purpose of the research. The purpose of the research is to determine and summarize the axiological aspects of the convergence of the European Union's activities in the field of health policy. Methodology. The methodological basis of the research includes an axiological analysis of national and European legislative acts, a comparative analysis of national approaches to medical standards, and an assessment of the institutional capacity of EU member states to adapt European standards. Scientific novelty. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the comprehensive analysis of the convergence of health policy in the EU and the study of the impact of a unified strategy on pan-European health effectiveness, with a focus on the harmonization of medical standards and regulations. Conclusions. The effective implementation of the EU's convergence strategy in health policy is a key factor in improving public health, preventing diseases, and eliminating threats to physical and mental health at the pan-European level.

The potential of EU policies for achieving wellbeing economies

Abstract The environmental crisis, growing levels of social inequalities and rising levels of non-communicable diseases are all symptoms of economic systems that are failing to generate wellbeing. There is increasing support for the notion that addressing these crises requires shifting the focus from economic growth to a broader range of measures that reflect wellbeing, through more comprehensive, consistent and integrated policy approaches to deliver this. This presentation explores to what extent the concept of the Wellbeing Economy is being applied at the EU level, by tracking changes in some of the EU’s key policies and strategies over the past 10 years and in the Semester process, as a mechanism to implement them. It concludes that while progress towards more integrated policy approaches have been made, it is limited by the continuing emphasis on economic, over other policy areas. Recommendations will be made for an even more comprehensive EU Strategy that enables policy sectors to deliver wellbeing objectives in a more coordinated manner and on how to ensure health and wellbeing remain on policy-making agendas.

Integrating Management Strategy and Porter’s Five Forces Model for the Sustainable Recycling of Textile Waste

The purpose of this paper was to address the compatibility of management strategies with the competitive needs of textile waste recycling companies by applying Porter’s model. In conjunction with Porter’s model, it is appropriate to assess the attractiveness of the industry based on the balance of opportunities and threats, which determines whether the industry is attractive or less attractive. From this assessment, it is possible to decide whether to remain in the given industry and to identify strategies that indicate success. In terms of the European Green Agreement, it is necessary to ensure the faster and more efficient development of the circular economy, with a focus on resource-intensive sectors, including the textile industry. Given the adoption of the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles in June 2023, it is essential to address the issue of sustainable textile waste recycling. The importance of this strategy lies in strengthening the industry through reuse and repairs, as well as addressing the problem of textile waste. The prioritization of textile waste recycling has gained even greater importance with the arrival of the new automotive company, Volvo Cars, in eastern Slovakia. This development underscores the need for enhanced recycling efforts to manage the expected increase in industrial textile waste associated with the automotive sector’s expansion in the region. In Slovakia, four companies are involved in textile waste recycling: SK-TEX s.r.o., PR Krajné s.r.o., HOVEBA s.r.o., and LYKOTEX Slovakia s.r.o. This paper provides information on the possibility of expanding textile waste recycling capacities in eastern Slovakia. The quadratic graph method was used to identify an optimal location for textile waste recycling. The results of this analysis will help determine which enterprise in eastern Slovakia can enhance its competitiveness by leveraging this strategic location.

Napirenden a kis agrárvállalkozások szerepének növelése

The authors of the study made an attempt to identify specific objectives to enhance the contribution of small agricultural and food businesses to food security, after consulting the professional organizations from several European countries. They are also examining the alignment of these objectives with different EU strategies and action plans.

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION FOR THE ECONOMIC RECOVERY OF POST-CONFLICT REGIONS: PROSPECTS OF IMPLEMENTATION IN UKRAINE

The purpose of this article is to research innovative strategies of the European Union, which are aimed at the economic recovery of post-conflict regions, as well as to determine the possibilities of their adaptation for use in Ukraine. The relevance of the study is due to the fact that after the full-scale invasion of Russia on the territory of Ukraine, Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, Zaporizhzhya, etc. oblasts were under the terror of the occupiers, which negatively affected their residents, infrastructure and development of these territories. Their restoration requires the use of new approaches, including the introduction of innovative technologies and tools. The European Union has a lot of experience in this area, and its strategies can be useful for Ukraine in terms of accelerating the reconstruction process and creating favorable conditions for economic growth. The methods of system analysis, comparative analysis and the case study method were used to achieve the research goal. The systematic analysis made it possible to study a set of economic, social and political factors that influence the recovery of post-conflict regions, and the comparative method helped to determine the most effective European strategies that can be adapted to Ukrainian realities. The case study method made it possible to analyze in depth successful examples of the application of innovative strategies in EU countries, such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is of great importance for the development of recommendations for the implementation of similar approaches in Ukraine. The results of the study show that innovative strategies play an important role in the reconstruction of post-conflict regions. The European Union has developed a number of tools for the reconstruction of destroyed territories, among which investments in digital transformation, development of small and medium-sized businesses, infrastructure restoration and introduction of "green" technologies occupy an important place. In particular, the European Structural and Investment Funds provide financial support to rebuild infrastructure and stimulate economic growth in conflict-affected regions. The «Horizon Europe» program also contributes to the financing of scientific research and the development of technological innovations, which can be extremely useful for the recovery of Ukraine. The practical value of the article lies in the development of a recommendation on the adaptation of innovative EU strategies for the reconstruction of the de-occupied territories of Ukraine. The implementation of these strategies can not only contribute to economic growth, but also help create new jobs, restore infrastructure and increase the investment attractiveness of regions. In addition, the introduction of "green" technologies and digital transformation can contribute to the sustainable development and integration of Ukrainian territories into the European economic system. An important aspect is also the development of human capital through educational programs and vocational retraining, which will ensure long-term growth and social stability in regions devastated by military actions.

Unravelling the EU’s promotional integration strategy in the MENA region: a dialectical analysis of the Agadir and GAFTA Agreements

Given the rhetoric of the EU on the necessity of economic integration for the MENA region, this article sheds light on the ‘puzzling’ fragmentation in its regional integration strategy through the cases of the GAFTA and Agadir Agreements. It problematises mainstream analyses and employs a dialectical approach based on the philosophy of internal relations, aiming to surpass existing critical literature that has only partially illuminated facets of the EU’s strategy. The article situates the EU strategy within the dynamics of neoliberal capitalism (and its interconnected tensions) and considers its spatial and temporal scales. It argues that the complex interplay of developments at the EU scale, global competition scale and MENA scale across three distinct time frames (1995–2003, 2004–11, 2012–21) has shaped the EU’s fragmented strategy. On the EU scale, while Brussels presents itself as a leading proponent of neoliberal ideology for global market openness, it strategically elevates the Agadir Agreement at the expense of the GAFTA to meet its economic needs. The global competitive dynamics, however, have constrained this preference, as the EU has been contested by the US in the Agadir Agreement area and China and, to a lesser extent, Russia in other GAFTA member states. Lastly, the agency of MENA states has been noticeable, since the EU encounters difficulties in influencing GAFTA’s regulatory framework and dealing with the diverse interests of state elites in the region. We conclude that the dialectical method of the article holds promise for analysing the regional integration strategies of other global powers.

A generic stochastic network-based formulation for production optimization of district heating systems

AbstractDistrict heating (DH) systems are an important component in the EU strategy to reach the emission goals, since they allow an efficient supply of heat while using the advantages of sector coupling between different energy carriers such as power, heat, gas and biomass. Most DH systems use several different types of units to produce heat for hundreds or thousands of households (e.g. natural gas-fired boilers, electric boilers, biomass-fired units, waste heat from industry, solar thermal units). Furthermore, combined heat and power units units are often included to use the synergy effects of excess heat from electricity production. To address the challenge of providing optimization tools for a vast variety of different system configurations, we propose a generic mixed-integer linear programming formulation for the operational production optimization in DH systems. The model is based on a network structure that can represent different system setups while the underlying model formulation stays the same. Therefore, the model can be used for most DH systems although they might use different combinations of technologies in different system layouts. The mathematical formulation is based on stochastic programming to account for the uncertainty of energy prices and production from non-dispatchable units such as waste heat and solar heat. Furthermore, the model is easily adaptable to different application cases in DH systems such as operational planning, bidding to electricity markets and long-term evaluation. We present results from three real cases in Denmark with different requirements.

Management and Enforcement Theories for Compliance with the Rule of Law

Abstract Following the contemporary debate surrounding two alternative perspectives on compliance – enforcement and management – this article suggests an analysis through the lens of the rule of law crisis. Specifically, the financial and techno-managerial strategy developed by the EU for the indirect protection of the rule of law relies on mechanisms that combine characteristics from both the enforcement and management approaches. This article will identify these mechanisms, namely the European Semester, the Conditionality regulation, the European Structural Investment Funds and the Recovery and Resilience Facility, in order to determine their nature, features, and tools for ensuring compliance with the rule of law. The hypothesis of this article relies on the idea that the EU’s tools are characterised by a mismatch between the causes of the identified problems and the chosen solutions. Considering that the deployment of the above measures has not re-established compliance, the EU strategy toes between inducing rule conformity on the one hand and deterring rule of law violations on the other. However, it seems that only the former can restore the rule of law, as the latter is considered ill-equipped to reverse or at least halt instances of backsliding. This mismatch explains why the Justice Scoreboard, the Framework, and the Review Cycle with its Annual Report have not made any difference, and more generally, why management strategies are unfit for dealing with deliberate backsliding.1

From Transformation to Consolidation of the State: Challenges of the Rule of Law in the Western Balkans

Democratic societies must adhere to the Rule of Law to ensure that every individual—including the government—responsible to the law. This research looks at the obstacles the Western Balkans encountered in defending the rule of law as they integrated into the European Union, concentrating on the discrepancy between the EU's high standards and the institutional capabilities of the area. This study examines the theoretical underpinnings of the Rule of Law as they relate to Western culture and European history, employing qualitative research methodologies. It also examines the integration processes and changes that have taken place in the Western Balkans. The qualitative analysis concludes that although the Western Balkans need the Rule of Law, existing EU policies might risk being ineffective. It recommends implementing more adaptable and encouraging systems to create the fundamentals of the Rule of Law in these countries, promoting steady advancement towards EU integration. This article offers a critical evaluation of the EU's strategy, highlighting the necessity of customized, situation-specific tactics.

Strategic foresight as a beacon for the new EU industrial policy

AbstractThis article assesses the impact of strategic foresight in shaping the European Commission’s new industrial policy. It argues that, since it was introduced by President von der Leyen as a political portfolio, foresight has contributed to mainstreaming the concepts of ‘resilience’ and ‘open strategic autonomy’ into the EU's industrial strategy, via the Strategic Foresight Reports and new participatory structures inside and outside the Commission. This responded to the need for building up preparedness in the face of ‘radical uncertainty’ on future supply chain disruptions. We conclude that strategic foresight—if supported by an effective governance—will play an increasingly large role in shaping the EU's future policymaking. In particular, the concepts of ‘competitive sustainability’ and people's wellbeing, advanced by the 2023 Strategic Foresight Report as pillars of open strategic autonomy, may help futureproof the EU's green industrial policy going forward.

Strategies to Exclude: Temporariness and Return/Readmission Policies of the EU

Migration governance, migration management and migration crises have been key themes among migration scholars and governments over the last decade. Historically, systemic political economic crises are accompanied by the scapegoating of migrants, often as a strategy to shift the focus away from political and economic decisions taken by states. The EU has been no exception, and political and social tensions around migration are arguably at an all-time high, as European governments aim to protect their interests and manage their borders amidst increasing migration pressures globally. In this paper, we will examine these three EU immigration prevention strategies, with a focus on the recently adopted Pact on Migration and Asylum. Specifically, we ask the following research question: what are the roles of temporariness and return/readmission as important EU strategies to hinder, stop, and exclude the movement of migrants to EU (and Schengen)?

Material footprint and import dependency in EU27: Past trends and future challenges

This study examines the material footprint and import dependency of the European Union (EU27) members, focusing on four key material categories: biomass, fossil fuels, metal ores, and non-metals. The feasibility and efficacy of EU strategies concerning the transition to a circular economy and the reduction of raw material extractions is assessed, with a particular focus on the Critical Raw Materials Act (CRM Act).Using Structural Decomposition Analysis (SDA) between 2012 and 2020, we identify the impacts of macroeconomic drivers such as technological progress, structural changes, and final consumption patterns on material use. Our analysis indicates a gradual shift towards the relative decoupling of GDP from material use in the EU27, particularly for non-metals and fossil fuels. Additionally, the region shows a decreasing dependency on non-EU countries, as evidenced by the reduction in net trade over recent years.However, the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario projects material usage and import reliance up to 2030, assessing the EU27's ability to meet the CRM targets. The results reveal significant import dependencies from the rest of the world, particularly for fossil fuels (90.9%) and metal ores (86.2%), where nearly all EU27 countries exceed the 65% import dependency threshold. While biomass and non-metals show more promise in terms of self-sufficiency, challenges remain. Additionally, the potential for substitutability across raw materials is explored, highlighting the complexities of transitioning to alternative resources such as biomass.Our findings emphasize the necessity for integrated policy interventions at the EU level, combining supply and demand measures, technological advancements, and behavioral changes to achieve relative dematerialization. The study also stresses the importance of international cooperation to secure sustainable raw material supplies. Without a multifaceted approach, the EU27 risks failing to meet future environmental and sustainability goals, particularly in light of recent geopolitical developments and the urgent need to transition to renewable energy sources.

Operational Technology resilience in the 2023 draft delegated act on cybersecurity for the power sector—An EU policy process analysis

The EU’s 2020 Cybersecurity Strategy promotes cybersecurity as essential for building a resilient, green, and digital Europe. Cleaner energy sources such as wind and solar are more volatile and thus need digital integration with Industrial Control Systems (ICS) for grid balancing. However, the digitization and the properties of cyberspace provide the ability to coordinate disruptive cyberattacks against power grid infrastructures. Digital weapons may be launched against ICS to start multiple cascading outages with a keystroke, causing large-scale blackouts we have never seen before. To reduce risk, the EU’s Strategy describes three objectives for ICS: Secure-by-design, resilient, and timely patched. In the strategy, the European Commission suggests a ”network code,” i.e. a delegated act for the electric power sector, setting rules for cybersecurity in cross-border electricity flows. The draft delegated act of November 2023 presents security requirements for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Network and Information Systems (NIS). Although ICS systems are used directly to manage electricity flows, ICS is only mentioned in one of the delegated act’s recitals as a subcategory of ICT products. Suppose Information Technology (IT) rather than Operational Technology (OT) is the focus of the delegated act. In that case, policymakers may not fulfill the EU cybersecurity strategy’s ICS objectives, thus failing to improve the resilience of power grid infrastructures and cross-border electricity flows. This study is a policy process analysis, and its contribution is threefold. First, a literature review is conducted to understand the extent to which the delegated act covers OT. Second, a framework condition analysis is applied to understand why the delegated act lacks OT-specific security requirements. Third, the analysis is extended to understand whether OT is sufficiently covered to achieve the EU strategy’s ICS objectives. In conclusion, our analysis shows a strong intention to include OT-specific security in the preparatory work of the delegated act, but that a stronger position of the IT communities forced OT onto the sideline. Further, the study shows weak fulfillment of general secure-by-design principles and security patch management. These results indicate that OT coverage in the delegated act is not in line with the expectations of the EU’s cybersecurity strategy and the delegated act’s early preparatory work. Therefore, we have suggested three measures to increase OT resilience focus in the act: (a) Define the expressions NIS, ICT services, ICT processes, and ICT in general as umbrella terms that include OT, (b) The foreseen minimum and advanced cybersecurity controls should require OT-specific measures, including holistic secure-by-design principles and patch management covering all patching phases, (c) Develop an OT implementation guide for the delegated act. Our work can be used by policymakers to optimize cybersecurity policy processes and by researchers studying socio-technical gaps in the cybersecurity domain.

When and how the ‘Neighbours’ matter: ‘Immediate’ opportunity structures in the Eastern neighbourhood and policy frame-alignment by the EU

ABSTRACT The paper examines the external opportunity structures of the EU’s eastern neighbours during times of high security threat. The research investigates when and to what extent opportunities in the neighbourhood affect EU engagement and shape policy-frame alignment. The study introduces the concept of an ‘immediate’ opportunity structure and concludes that the EU’s decisions to initiate or alter policy frames towards countries in the Eastern neighbourhood are driven by immediate security-related opportunity structures that exist at the moment of decision-making. Furthermore, the EU’s decision to engage depends on whether the security threat in the region and the neighbourhood directly affects the Union’s security architecture. As the political environment in the neighbourhood becomes more open and concessions towards the EU increase, the EU boosts its engagement, reflected in its policy alignment. The paper claims that the EU strategy prioritises immediate opportunity structures over indicators of long-term achievements in target countries. This focus on immediate opportunities aims to address, create, and further expand long-term opportunity structures.

An Analysis of Romania’s Energy Strategy: Perspectives and Developments since 2020

Earth’s climate cannot be ignored any longer. Policies are vital in order to mitigate the negative effects of climate change. The energy crisis created by the Russo-Ukrainian war in Europe and COVID-19 pandemic affected the EU and its member states. The focus is more than ever on its energy policies and independence. The EU revised the energy strategy in response to the regional conflict, and it sped up all the processes for energetic independence from other countries outside of the EU. This benefited the climate change policies the most, as all the measures involved reducing energy consumption and increasing renewables, thus contributing to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. As a member state of the EU, Romania is committed to complying with EU regulations. With a high degree of energy independence compared with the other EU members, Romania plans to become a regional energy provider and modernize the energy infrastructure internally as a response to the regional conflict. The measures that the EU and Romania implemented after the conflict started in 2022 have come to fruition, and the effects are becoming visible a year later. This study aims to study the energy strategy of Romania in correlation with the EU strategy in the turbulent period of pandemics and conflict between 2019 and 2023, with the latest available data.

Homo Digitalis in the EU and in Hungary

Digitization has such a complex impact on public and private life, fundamental rights, competitiveness and public services, of which the article only examines the implementation of the EU digital transformation in Hungary. In the context of digitalisation, a significant issue is that the criteria for technical-technological standardization and legislation following the principle of democratic constitutionality differ, so Homo Digitalis is born in the midst of these contradictions. Increasing economic and social competitiveness, strengthening the well-being and legal protection of citizens in the implementation of the decades- long Digital Citizenship programs are linked in the EU strategy documents, while creation of the digital world in Hungary differs to some extent: the provisions on digitization are set out in 996 legal sources in force (November 2023) but the development of the emerging institutional, service and public funding system is incoherent, it does not adapt to the real social needs, digital literacy of citizens and digital penetration. Based on government strategies, Digital Hungarians want the e-Administration, e-Payment system and e-Identification available on their mobile phone from comfort, as they are roaming in social media according to surveys. But in the background, the Hungarian path of digital transformation differs from the principles of EU Digital Citizenship, and the new Act on digital services, adopted in December 2023 without public debate, provides the fullest possible state control on citizens, serves to collect and sell their data, in addition to selectively strengthening the ICT corporate world in the country.

Economic and social exclusion in the European Community in the years 2011-2022

Abstract Subject and purpose of work The subject-matter and aim of this paper is to present the extent of poverty and economic and social exclusion in the countries of the European Union (EU-27). The specific aim is the comparative assessment and reduction of these processes between 2011 and 2022. Material and methods The paper is based on an analysis of official EUROSTAT statistics. The TOPSIS taxonomic method was used for comparative evaluation, making it possible to measure and assess synthetically the variation of poverty across countries in dynamic terms for the selected years 2011, 2016 and 2022. Results On the basis of the collected empirical material, a multivariate synthetic assessment of the level of economic and social exclusion in all EU-27 member states was made. The extent of the variation and changes in this process were compared in dynamic terms using the taxonomic approach. Conclusions The analysis of the results confirmed the existence of considerable variation in the occurrence of the “components” of economic and social exclusion. The results of the multivariate analysis helped made it possible to prepare a ranking and typology of similarities between countries. The analysis confirms the partial achievement of the poverty-reducing goals of the EU strategies, although not to the same extent and in the same pace, by EU countries.

From Transformation to Consolidation of the State: Challenges of the Rule of Law in the Western Balkans

Democratic societies must adhere to the Rule of Law to ensure that every individual—including the government—responsible to the law. This research looks at the obstacles the Western Balkans encountered in defending the rule of law as they integrated into the European Union, concentrating on the discrepancy between the EU's high standards and the institutional capabilities of the area. This study examines the theoretical underpinnings of the Rule of Law as they relate to Western culture and European history, employing qualitative research methodologies. It also examines the integration processes and changes that have taken place in the Western Balkans. The qualitative analysis concludes that although the Western Balkans need the Rule of Law, existing EU policies might risk being ineffective. It recommends implementing more adaptable and encouraging systems to create the fundamentals of the Rule of Law in these countries, promoting steady advancement towards EU integration. This article offers a critical evaluation of the EU's strategy, highlighting the necessity of customized, situation-specific tactics.

The principle of adequate social protection in the European Pillar of Social Rights: Assessing the instruments used to realise its potential

Improving the social security protection of atypical workers has been high on the EU agenda in recent years. With the adoption of the European Pillar of Social Rights in 2017, the EU wished to break away from a decade of austerity measures. The EU further developed the right to adequate social protection in the Pillar through the Recommendation on access to social protection for workers and the self-employed. This instrument urges EU Member States to ensure adequate access to social protection for workers, regardless of their employment relationship, and the self-employed. As part of the EU's recovery strategy during and after the Covid-19 crisis, several financial instruments were developed to support EU Member States. Through the Temporary Support to Mitigate Unemployment Risks in an Emergency, EU Member States received support for job retention schemes. The EU also adopted the Recovery Resilience Facility, which provided grants and loans. Another support instrument was the European Social Fund Plus. This article discusses those recent EU initiatives, focusing on unemployment and the protection of atypical workers and the self-employed. With the introduction of the European Employment Strategy (1997), a closer link was made at EU level between unemployment, increasing labour market participation and activation measures. Less attention was paid to ensuring adequate unemployment protection. In recent years, however, it appears that the EU has been playing an increasing role in providing funding for temporary support and in introducing changes to EU Member States’ policies.