EU Nations Research Articles

The Sale of EU Citizenship and the 'Law' Behind It

Investment migration in the European Union (‘EU’) as well as outside of it has been the subject of many legal and socio-political studies, with numerous developments emerging in recent years. There is considerable disagreement on the legal position at EU level, which can be observed in the differing views of commentators on the EU’s competence on the matter. Thus, this article maps the situation concerning citizenship by investment (‘CBI’) in the EU by canvassing the policy and legal developments to date as well as the main critical perspectives from scholarly work. In doing so, this article explores the exact legal position of both EU Member States and organs in the context of the split of competence on nationality matters, as well as routes to potential intervention at EU level. The core research question in this regard is whether the matter is one of law or merely policy, and what could justify EU level intervention in an effort to approximate Member States’ laws on investment migration. Thus, the first part of this article explores relevant theoretical frameworks before moving onto a discussion of trends and tendencies among states (inside and outside the EU). A brief overview of the risks, scandals and controversies attached to CBI throughout the years will follow. Next, the internal and external dimensions of the EU’s approach to CBI will be discussed in order to lay the foundation for a more substantive analysis of the EU’s legal position on CBI, including a discussion on EU citizenship and nationality laws. Last, this article will briefly consider CBI from a public international law perspective, and conclude with a critical commentary of the issues canvassed, including on the so-called ‘soft law’ considerations of citizenship and on the European Commission’s proposals in response to investment migration in the EU.

The EU’s 2020 summit on the COVID recovery fund: leading the divided house to a consensus

Research methodology The writing of this case study was triggered by the numerous media reports in 2020 that talked about the EU nations losing its solidarity. EU being a very appropriate example of economic, monetary and customs union while teaching theories of economic integration and international relations, the post-pandemic approach of EU leadership to rebuild the crisis-ridden member nations seemed an excellent material for developing a teaching case study. The case study was written based on secondary data and published information available. Enough desk research was undertaken to build the characterisation of the protagonists and due diligence done to chronologically report all facts of the case as the story developed. It was decided to build the epilogue into the case study so that the case analysis had enough depth. Case overview/synopsis The case is set in 2020 when the global economy was reeling under the massive impact of a lockdown and the aftermath. The case study examines the model of economic union in international business and the various challenges that governance of an association of nations such as the 27 member EU can throw up. It examines the conflict of interest that can arise among member nations during critical circumstances such as the pandemic and its massive tolls. EU had established itself as a critical international trade player and had already proven their might as a united entity to the world trade partners, given the fact that they were not only a customs union but also a monetary union. In this scenario when the pandemic threw them into the whirlwind of lockdown-induced crisis, the united front of the mighty EU all but crumbled. As the worst-hit economies of Italy and Spain struggled to pull themselves back to normalcy, EU experienced one of its worst solidarity crises. EU’s president Angela Merkel and ally French President Emmanuel Macron with support from the EU Council’s President Charles Michel stepped forward to resurrect the badly hit economies. They viewed this as the best opportunity to bring about a united front by coming together at Brussels for a summit when lockdown eased up in July 2020. It was to be a show of unity to jointly bail out the severely affected member nations by grants rather than loans. The summit, however, snowballed into bitter arguments and open bickering between the wealthy and not-so-wealthy members, and they could not agree upon the issue of debt vs aid. The fact that the EU was an agglomeration of 27 nations, which were far from homogenous in socioeconomic status, not to speak of divided political ideologies, only added dimensions to the dispute. Negotiations repeatedly hit roadblocks. Can the EU leaders lead their bitterly divided house to a consensus? Complexity academic level The case is suitable for graduate and post-graduate levels. Management courses where international business studies, international trade blocs and global leadership are part of curriculum can use the case to teach concepts of “Regional economic integration”, “Economic and Political union” and theories of “International relations” and “Negotiation”. It can also be ideally used in an executive management programme on “Global Leadership” to highlight the complexities of “governance of international associations” and “consensus building amidst diversity”.

The Relative Positioning of Genotyping and Phenotyping for Tuberculosis Resistance Screening in Two EU National Reference Laboratories in 2023.

The routine use of whole genome sequencing (WGS) as a reference typing technique for Mycobacterium tuberculosis epidemiology combined with the catalogued and extensive knowledge base of resistance-associated mutations means an initial susceptibility prediction can be derived from all cultured isolates in our laboratories based on WGS data alone. Preliminary work has confirmed, in our low-burden settings, these predictions are for first-line drugs, reproducible, robust with an accuracy similar to phenotypic drug susceptibility testing (pDST) and in many cases able to also predict the level of resistance (MIC). Routine screening for drug resistance by WGS results in approximately 80% of the isolates received being predicted as fully susceptible to the first-line drugs. Parallel testing with both WGS and pDST has demonstrated that routine pDST of genotypically fully susceptible isolates yields minimal additional information. Thus, rather than re-confirming all fully sensitive WGS-based predictions, we suggest that a more efficient use of available mycobacterial culture capacity in our setting is the development of a more extensive and detailed pDST targeted at any mono or multi-drug-resistant isolates identified by WGS screening. Phenotypic susceptibility retains a key role in the determination of an extended susceptibility profile for mono/multi-drugresistant isolates identified by WGS screening. The pDST information collected is also needed to support the development of future catalogues of resistance-associated mutations.

Determinants of FDI Inflow from European Union Countries to Vietnam: A Panel Data Analysis

This paper explores the determinants of FDI inflows from EU nations to Vietnam, employing a set of panel data from 26 member countries of EU that have been investing in Vietnam over the period 2012-2020. With the panel dataset, the study estimates three models, including pooled Ordinary Least Square (OLS), Fixed Effect Model (FEM), and Random Effect Model (REM), and then uses several formal tests to determine which model is best suited for data analysis. Based on the results of the F-test, Breusch - Pagan's Lagrange Multiplier test, and Hausman test, the Random Effect Model is preferred. According to the empirical findings, FDI from EU economies to Vietnam might be positively affected by GDP, corruption perception level, or the cleanliness of Vietnam's public sector, which is consistent with the theoretical basis. The effect of trade openness and economic freedom is negative, contrary to expectations. The coefficients of the real exchange rate, infrastructure, and COVID pandemic on FDI inflows are not statistically significant. Further studies should be carried out for a better understanding of these determinants.

Public Investment in Short-Cycle Tertiary Vocational Education: Historical, Longitudinal, and Fixed-Effects Analyses of Developed and Less-Developed Countries

We use three analytic steps to examine public investment in short-cycle tertiary education. First, reviewing the historical development, the literature reveals that national and regional policies on educational development emphasized bachelor’s programs in vocational education in the early twenty-first century, especially in the EU. This historical background informs the longitudinal trend analysis in the second step of the educational and public investment variables (2000–2018) in our econometric analysis. The combined descriptive studies illuminate competitive advantages for EU and ASEAN nations in networks emphasizing open economic and academic exchange. Third, the fixed-effects analysis indicates a higher level of investment in general tertiary education per student, associated with a lower enrollment level in short-cycle vocational and technical tertiary programs. Using insights from this three-step process, we explore the implications of a nation’s capacity to invest in short-cycle tertiary programs as part of economic development and the pursuit of social equity within and across countries. Specifically, we conclude that short-cycle programs are a step toward integrating vocational education into programs in polytechnics and other higher education institutions.

Dreamworld or Dystopia?: The Nordic Model and Its Influence in the 21st Century

Dreamworld or Dystopia?: The Nordic Model and Its Influence in the 21st Century

Drivers of household carbon footprints across EU regions, from 2010 to 2015

Urban regions are responsible for a significant proportion of carbon emissions. The carbon footprint (CF) is a practical measure to identify the responsibility of individuals, cities, or nations in climate change. Numerous CF studies have focused on national accounts, and a few combined consumer consumption and global supply chains to estimate additionally detailed spatial CF. However, the drivers of temporal change in detailed spatial CF are largely unknown, along with regional, spatial, and socioeconomic disparities. Here, we uncovered the drivers of changes in household CFs in EU regions, at the finest scale currently available, between 2010 and 2015. This study mapped the household CFs of 83 macro-regions across 27 EU nations and identified the driving factors underlying their temporal change. We combined multi-regional input-output tables and micro-consumption data from 275 247 and 272 045 households in 2010 and 2015, respectively. We decomposed EU regional CF, employing structural decomposition analysis, into five driving factors: emission intensity, supply chain structure, population, per capita consumption, and final demand share. For a deeper assessment of changes in the contribution of consumption patterns, we further categorized the regional CF into 15 factors, including 11 per capita consumption categories. We found that household CF drivers vary depending on region, population density, income, and consumption patterns. Our results can help policymakers adopt climate policies at the regional level by reflecting on the residents’ socioeconomic, spatial, and consumption conditions, for further ambitious climate actions.

When (EU) migration came to Great Yarmouth

ABSTRACT This article examines the impact of EU migration on Great Yarmouth, a coastal town in Norfolk, England. Great Yarmouth had the fifth highest ‘leave’ vote nationally in the UK Brexit referendum, at over 70%. In this article, we want to show that Great Yarmouth has always been a town of migration but the sudden arrival of large numbers of EU nationals, exercising their free movement rights, in a relatively short space of time has created divisions in the town, divisions which may take decades to heal. Using legal geography as a prism, we offer an insight into the complex and evolving realities of European integration – and resistance to it. We argue that because EU free movement is a process, not an event, it has long-term effects, effects which have not, to-date, been fully recognised and explored. What we observe in Great Yarmouth is that free movement has, at best, been unevenly experienced by both movers and stayers and, at worst, has a divisive effect on the local community. Only by understanding the experience of migration on a particular community over time can the impact of free movement be properly understood, its consequences continuing long after Brexit.

Determinants of Geothermal Power Sustainability Development: Do Global Competitiveness Markets Matter?

As a substantially capital-intensive venture, the distribution network of the geothermal business is disproportionately clustered around the project designing phase. The profound geothermal industry is broad, and consequently the geothermal economy differs substantially from one place to another. The primary goal of this study is to analyze the effect of factors relating to global competitiveness along with economic growth on the sustainability of geothermal energy among European 27 countries. Employing auto regressive distributing lag (ARDL), the major findings suggest that a significant rise in the geothermal power production sustainable development can occur in the 14 European Union emerged economies applying global competitiveness criteria than in EU13 developing economies. Among additional criteria, a conducive environment, intellectual capital, market shares, as well as an innovation ecosystem contributes more significantly to the sustainability of geothermal energy among the 14 classed as established in this research than the 13 emerging economies. The results suggest that geothermal power sustainability among the European countries regions could attain a sustainable increased level of geothermal energy generation by putting in place the necessary global competitiveness determinants for the EU 2030 Energy Union goals to be achieved. The attainment of these Energy Union goals will assist in combating climate change and fighting environmental pollution. Three estimators were adopted to confirm that all calculated projections made in the study are said to be valid. The global competitiveness measures should be made better effective by the EU nations and this will help in achieving a pollution-free society and environment. Authorities in charge of policy and law-making in the EU regions should participate more in global competitiveness for geothermal energy production to become sustainable. Cointegrated strategies that will promote sustainability should be stressed by policymakers in the EU. This will go a long way in reducing the level of carbon dioxide emissions and also in promoting sustainability in the area of geothermal power generation.

How Does Information and Communication Technology Affect Geothermal Energy Sustainability?

There are many advantages of geothermal energy, as an environmentally friendly resource, with some other problems to be addressed before the full potential of this sustainable and renewable resource, which is natural, could be harnessed. This research will aim to examine what effect ICT, that is, information and communication technology factors with sustainability in the economy, has on geothermal energy output among the considered 27 EU nations within the time frame 1990 to 2021. The novelty of this research is the ability to clarify the role of ICT toward geothermal power sustainability in the EU27 region. As well as the magnitude of effects of ICT on the geothermal power sustainability in EU13 developing countries and EU14 developed countries using the ARDL estimator. Autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) was adopted, and the findings show that a significant increase in the geothermal energy industry sustainability can occur in EU14 emerged economies using ICT factors than among the 13 emerging economies. Among additional factors, human capital, economic sustainability, and institutional quality contribute more positively to geothermal energy sustainability in EU14 emerging economies than in EU13 emerging economies. Similarly, further results show that a remarkable decrease in carbon dioxide emissions can occur in EU13 emerging economies using geothermal energy output than in EU14 emerged economies. All these results outputs are an indication that geothermal power sustainability among the European Union countries could be remarkably boosted by increasing the level of ICT determinants to attain the 2030 energy union goals. This study recommends that the considered European countries should prioritize the good functionality of ICT indicators in attaining societal objectives and that of the environment as well.

Die Position der EU zur Unabhängigkeit des Kosovo im Kontext des Gutachtens des Internationalen Gerichtshofs

This paper analyses the EU member states’ stance on Kosovo’s declaration of independence on 17 February 2008, which underwent scrutiny by the International Court of Justice (ICJ). On 22 July 2010, the ICJ issued an advisory opinion affirming that Kosovo’s declaration did not violate international law. This opinion further reinforces the argument that Kosovo’s independence was inevitable, given the backdrop of Yugoslavia’s dissolution during the post-Cold War era. During this process, most EU countries expressed their political and legal support for Kosovo’s independence. In contrast, five EU nations (Cyprus, Spain, Greece, Romania and Slovakia) continue to withhold recognition of Kosovo’s independence even after fifteen years. This paper demonstrates the persistent stance of these five EU states regarding Kosovo’s statehood, unchanged by the ICJ’s declaration.

Demographic Challenges in Poland Understanding Low Fertility

Research background: The phenomenon of low fertility in Poland is a vital subject of demographic analysis. In recent years, not only have there been changes in procreative and family models, but also in the age structure of society. This is particularly significant in the context of population ageing, which is becoming increasingly evident and brings numerous challenges such as increased burden on healthcare systems, a decrease in the active workforce, and the need to secure adequate retirement funds. Despite the desire to have children, many individuals refrain from making such a decision, and the reasons for this choice are diverse. Therefore, it was essential to conduct an analysis of the factors determining fertility in Poland, considering both the economic and social aspects. Understanding how the economic situation, labour market conditions, and changes in social structure impact on the decision-making process regarding childbearing is essential. Purpose of the paper: The objective of this article was to analyse fertility rates in Poland for the period 2004-2020. The conducted research identified the factors influencing the observed state of low generational replacement and determining their intensity. Methodology/Methods/Data sources: The data used in this article were sourced from the Central Statistical Office and covered the years 2004-2020. The study was based on literature concerning demography and econometrics. Three statistical methods were applied in the analysis of fertility in Poland: the Classical Method of Least Squares (CMLS) model, the Fixed Effects (FE) estimator, and the Random Effects (RE) estimator. Fertility analysis was conducted at regional level by dividing Poland into 16 administrative units (voivodeships). A panel model was employed for the analysis, and the results were subjected to Wald, Breusch-Pagan, and Hausman tests to compare the outcomes obtained from different models. Findings: The results of the analysis indicate that the economic situation and the labour market significantly influence the decision to have children in Poland. The trend of low fertility, although showing some increase, is still characteristic of the country compared to other EU nations. The analysis of the factors determining fertility is vital for understanding the decisions of young generations of Poles regarding parenthood.

Comparison of Conventional RCC Columns, Steel Columns and Composite Columns

Worldwide, the steel industry is expanding almost everywhere. Compared to the USA, EU, and other developed nations, India uses less steel in the construction industry. Additionally, India's cities have some of the highest population densities per square kilometre, which limits horizontal construction growth and favours vertical development. Steel structures are more ductility and can undergo more deflections while concrete structures are larger and attracts more seismic weight. Hybrid construction combines the advantageous characteristics of both the concrete and steel materials. With the aid of the ETAB programme, the static analysis and Response spectrum technique required by IS1893:2002 are carried out for three-dimensional models of the RCC column structure, steel column structure, and composite column structure. Comparative study of RCC column structure, steel column structure and composite column structure for G+10 is included. Furthermore, the paper addresses the economic implications of these structural systems. It compares the initial costs. Overall, the comparative analysis aims to provide engineers, architects, and construction professionals with valuable insights into the selection of the most suitable structural system for a given project. It helps in understanding the strengths and weaknesses of RCC column structures, steel structures, and composite structures, enabling informed decision-making based on project requirements, budget constraints, and performance expectations.

Volunteering as a Means of Fostering Integration and Intercultural Relations. Evidence from Six European Contexts

Migrant integration remains a continuous challenge in many EU countries, as shown by the retreat from multiculturalism and the concerns regarding Muslim migrants. In recent years, the increase in asylum-seekers has added further complexities to the issue. Meanwhile, volunteering is considered to be an important aspect of today’s society and a thermometer of civic well-being. Bringing together the field of migration studies and research on volunteering, we investigate whether volunteering would foster processes of integration and intercultural relations. We do so by presenting an innovative empirical study based on interviews and self-administered questionnaires conducted at two points in time over a period of about a year in a specific setting that brought together EU and third-country nationals in volunteering activities in six European contexts. Thus, we are able to provide an in-depth account of volunteering experiences and their effects on intercultural relations and processes of integration. The research highlights how volunteering fosters social interactions, intersecting with dynamics of inclusion. It is a valuable tool that strengthens the community as well as the process of social integration, helping to overcome the tensions and conflicts that persist in European societies. At the same time, we argue that volunteering cannot make up for all integration challenges since the process of societal integration requires a more comprehensive approach which includes tackling discrimination in structural integration.

Potential Sticking Points between EU Accession Requirements and National Interests in Serbia, with Special Reference to Geopolitical and Minority Issues

Potential Sticking Points between EU Accession Requirements and National Interests in Serbia, with Special Reference to Geopolitical and Minority Issues

МІГРАЦІЙНА ПОЛІТИКА ФРН НА СУЧАСНОМУ ЕТАПІ: АНАЛІЗ ПІДХОДІВ ДО БІЖЕНЦІВ В КОНТЕКСТІ МІЖНАРОДНИХ ВИКЛИКІВ

The article examines the main principles of the refugee migration policy of the Federal Republic of Germany, highlights the main migration laws and documents regulating migration flows. Aid to refugees from the countries of North Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia in 2015 and Ukrainian refugees who arrived in Germany due to the full-scale aggression of the Russian Federation are compared. On February 24, 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, triggering another war in Europe and leading to a significant humanitarian crisis with over three million Ukrainian refugees. This part of the article explores whether refugees from Ukraine are perceived differently compared to those from other countries. Notably, while the 2015 refugee influx into Germany primarily consisted of young men from the Middle East, the current situation involves mostly women, children, and elderly people from Ukraine. This shift has led to different public and political responses in Germany. Furthermore, the article discusses why Ukrainian refugees have received better conditions compared to the 2015 scenario, highlighting factors like political dimensions, Ukraine's orientation towards Western democracy, geographical proximity invoking a sense of shared fate, and the cultural closeness reflected in the European character of Ukrainian cities. The article also studies the legal mechanisms affecting refugee reception, particularly the “Mass Influx Directive” enacted in 2001 following the displacement during the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s. This directive offers a bureaucracy-free method of accepting refugees outside the usual asylum procedure but requires a decision from the EU for its activation. Notably, in 2015, this directive was not applied to Syrian refugees. Instead, Germany unilaterally decided to accept large numbers of Syrian refugees on September 4, 2015. Contrastingly, in 2022, the EU nations collectively decided to activate this directive for Ukrainian refugees soon after the Russian invasion. This directive, triggered in situations like war or persecution impacting large population groups, allows for a bypass of the standard asylum procedure, granting Ukrainian refugees direct protection within the EU without the need for thorough application scrutiny and additional burdens. The conclusion of the article synthesizes the observations on the complexities and dynamics of migration processes in the contemporary world, with a focus on Germany's role as a key player in shaping European migration policy. The analysis of Germany’s approaches to refugees from various regions, especially in the context of Russia's military aggression against Ukraine in 2022, highlights differences in attitudes and methods of assistance. It was established that key German migration laws and documents reflect the dynamic and adaptive nature of state policy, responding to global challenges and changes. The assistance provided to Ukrainian refugees underscores Germany's particular approach towards this group, considering their situation induced by military actions. The primary conclusion is that recipient countries' migration policies are not static; they adapt to external challenges and internal needs. The situation with Ukrainian refugees has been another significant test for the German migration system, where humanitarian commitments intersect with political realities. Germany's efforts in this domain should be considered in formulating international policy aimed at supporting stability and cooperation in Europe. Key words: migration policy, Germany, refugees from the Middle East, Ukrainian refugees, migration space, migrants, cooperation, visa regime, illegal migration.

An Assessment of the Climate Damage Costs of European Short-Lived Climate Forcers

AbstractIn addition to effects from greenhouse gases, climate change is affected by short-lived climate forcers (SLCF). These are often co-emitted with carbon dioxide, and some are regulated air pollutants. In the governance of these pollutants, established estimates of damage costs of pollution inform benefit–cost analyses. However, climate change impact of SLCFs is omitted from these estimates. The purpose of this study is to calculate economic damage costs of air pollutants’ effect on climate change and compare these with established damage costs. Focus is on European emissions governed in the EU National Emission Reduction Commitments Directive during 2020–2050. We use well-known SLCF emission metrics and multiply with literature values on social costs of methane to calculate climate damage costs of SLCFs. The results indicate that average absolute climate damage costs are highest for black carbon ($59,500/ton in 2050) and lowest for nonmethane volatile organic compounds ($661/ton). Our indicative values are likely underestimations. Indicative climate damage costs are usually lower than established damage costs, with notable exceptions. We propose that more detailed studies are necessary, and that inclusion of climate damage costs into economic valuation of SLCFs is important for future air pollution and climate benefit–cost analyses.

The Impact of the Legislative, Political and Economic Context of the Country of Origin on Naturalisation. The Case of EU Nationals in Switzerland

Naturalization decision not only depends on the profile and migratory trajectory of those likely to acquire a new nationality but also on the characteristics of the host countries and the countries of origin. Until now, little attention has been paid to changes in the country of origin. Thus, this article focused on three events that may have affected the naturalization of foreign nationals living in Switzerland: recognition of dual nationality, EU accession, and the euro debt crisis. It aims to shed light on naturalization practices by comparing the evolution of naturalization rates throughout periods before and after these changes occurred in the country of origin. Results show that the recognition of dual nationality is likely to have an increased interest in naturalization on a long-term basis, while the new UE Member States’ naturalization rate decreased and converged towards the European rate. The impact of the economic crisis is more questionable.

Higher education and digitalization in perspective of use of internet, integration of digital technology, digital public services: panel study of EU nations

Higher education and digitalization in perspective of use of internet, integration of digital technology, digital public services: panel study of EU nations

Полилингвизм в эпоху постграмотности: философско-культурологическое обоснование и методико-педагогическая разработка модели полилингвального образования

The study proposes a conceptual model of post-literacy, multilingualism, and multilingual education in the age of post-literacy and presents models of language communities of world universities, as well as models of linguistic and cultural adaptation of immigrants in EU nations and Russian universities participating in Program 5-100.
 The researchers analyzed real adaptive practices in Yekaterinburg universities (Ural Federal University and Ural State Pedagogical University) using evidence from Chinese students and employees; studied the formation and development of multilingual communities in universities with full-time and remote acquisition, languages teaching tools and university loyalty formation tools during remote interactions in social networks on the Internet, as well as practices that promote tolerance as a pedagogical value in multilingual educational communities.
 The research findings include a list of issues in scientific and educational communications in the university’s multilingual space/community in the context of digitalization and expansion of the multilingual community due to the inclusion of speakers of languages other than world languages, as well as a list of issues related to the supply of reading materials corresponding to the level of complex texts of a new nature in the age of post-literacy to provide linguistic education in the multilingual environment. The researchers also offer ways of entry into, existence in, and exit from a temporal multilingual community, as well as continuous renewal and development of such communities.