EU Missions Research Articles

Parliamentary acceptability of EU military deployments in member states: beyond rubber-stamping?

ABSTRACT This article examines national parliamentary debates in 13 EU member states of eight CSDP military deployments underway between 2016 and 2021. It reviews discussions about whether, and why, to send troops on EU missions and operations, and the extent to which these debates differ from expectations in the literature derived from involvement in NATO operations. The survey includes small states, which have been previously excluded from such analysis. Drawing on a dataset of 411 statements by national parliamentarians from across Europe, the article employs eight discursive frames to understand how MPs articulate their acceptance (or not) of CSDP deployments. We supplement this with detailed data on national troop contributions. We find that CSDP debates in national parliaments resemble those of ‘high-salience’ deployments when considering frame usage and party position. We present limited evidence supporting the claim that small states frame deployment debates similarly to large states.

Planning for citizen participation in the EU mission to restore our ocean and waters by 2030

Planning for citizen participation in the EU mission to restore our ocean and waters by 2030

A transdisciplinary co‐conceptualisation of marine identity

Abstract Challenge 10 of the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) calls for the restoration of society's relationship with the ocean. Research suggests that the relationship people have with marine environments can influence their depth of engagement in marine citizenship action, and the important role for ‘marine identity’ in driving that action. Although identity is well‐researched, marine identity is a concept novel to academia and a baseline understanding is required, both to grasp the scope of the concept, and to support research into its role in transforming the human‐ocean relationship. Here, a transdisciplinary study, endorsed as a UN Ocean Decade Activity and by the EU Mission Ocean & Waters, brought together a multinational community of marine researchers and practitioners to co‐produce a baseline conceptualisation of marine identity, drawing on photovoice and deliberative methodology. This paper presents the findings of the co‐production process and offers a first introduction in the literature of the multiple variations and formations of marine identity. We find marine identity to be a complex and multidimensional concept, suffused with individual experiences and understandings of the marine environment, based on social and cultural understandings of the ocean, contemporarily and historically. We present real‐world examples of marine identity to illustrate key themes that were developed through co‐production. Policy implications: We propose marine identity as a catalyst for understanding existing multifaceted and caring relationships with the ocean, as well as the restoration of society's relationship with the ocean. Marine identity research should, therefore, be prioritised in research seeking to contribute to the UN Ocean Decade Challenge 10, as this will support integration of non‐material values of the ocean into marine planning processes and policy making, enabling effective responses to Challenge 10's emphasis on integrating traditional/cultural ways of knowing and valuing the marine environment, through diverse marine identities. We welcome research efforts that will further develop the marine identity concept and empirically investigate the relationships between marine identity, marine citizenship, and people's relationships with the ocean. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Do transformer missions redirect values of mission-oriented projects? The case of the EU mission ‘Restore our Ocean and Waters’

Transformative mission-oriented innovation policy aims to redirect innovation, but evidence of this directional ability is limited. This paper examines whether transformer missions redirect values reflected by mission-oriented projects. We study the EU Mission ‘Restore our Ocean and Waters’ and use probabilistic topic modelling and thematic analyses to identify, conceptualize, and compare latent values described in 17 policy documents (i.e., strategic layer), 37 mission-oriented projects, and 809 mission-relevant projects (i.e., operational layer). We map how these values changed during the mission launch. The results of this study are ambivalent. On the one hand, the mission launch corresponds with an increase of funded projects of which mission-oriented projects commonly frame efforts towards mission objectives. On the other hand, there is a misalignment between policy and project-level values while the prevalence of project-level values remained largely unaffected by the mission. These mixed results provide a more nuanced understanding of transformer missions’ directional abilities.

European diplomats in the MENA region: a two-sided sense of disillusionment

ABSTRACT The ‘Arab Spring’ posed major emotional challenges to European diplomats. Sympathies for the demonstrators’ open embrace of European norms and values merged with discomfort about incalculable consequences following the former rulers’ eventual fall. Focusing on Egypt, this contribution analyses how European diplomats reacted to Hosni Mubarak’s ouster and the following developments. With their reminiscences to Europe’s own history and the European Union’s (EU) self-perception as ‘force for good’, a two-sided sense of disillusionment grew among European representatives: about the regime’s eventual unwillingness to reform, and about their own incapacity to meaningfully support change. Based on extensive research in Cairo and Brussels, this article analyses the emotions that escorted the actions of officials from the EU and its member states in Egypt. From a multi-level perspective, it considers activities by the EU Delegation to Egypt and EU member states’ embassies in Cairo, plus initiatives coming from Brussels.

Deriving lessons learned from monitoring adaptation activities in projects under the EU mission on adaptation.

Actions to strengthen climate resilience are gaining more traction. In order to ensure effective adaptation, it is important to monitor the outcomes and impacts of these actions. However, there are numerous challenges and a multitude of approaches when it comes to monitoring adaptation to climate change. This paper addresses challenges in setting up mechanisms for monitoring climate resilience and adaptation projects. Drawing from three EU Horizon 2020 projects under the EU Mission on Adaptation to Climate Change, it synthesizes challenges and insights to support future initiatives in their monitoring endeavors for other projects to learn from. Findings, acquired through workshops with experts who shared learnings and challenges, highlight four key themes: the challenge of tailoring global frameworks to local needs, data availability and evaluation of data, interdisciplinary collaboration in monitoring, and stakeholder engagement for monitoring endeavors.

Diplomatic Representation and Online/Offline Interactions: EU Coordination and Digital Sociability

Abstract European Union (EU) diplomatic representation in third countries is performed by both the Member States and by the EU Delegation. This hybrid system of representation functions through EU coordination. As social media have become important channels of state representation, coordination also takes place in the domain of digital diplomacy. This article analyzes how the EU Member State embassies and the EU Delegation coordinate EU representation through online and offline interactions. It investigates the practices of coordination and maps routines of digital sociability. The United States’ capital Washington, DC provides a context of both strong bilateral relations and a history of shared EU interests. The study draws on observations on Twitter (later renamed X) between 2019 and 2021 and reflections from diplomats who engage in the coordination of EU representation, collected through an online survey and interviews. By examining the reciprocity between online and offline interactions, the study illuminates how relationships are cultivated, a sense of collective belonging is fostered, and social order is negotiated. The findings enhance our understanding of how digital diplomacy is deeply embedded within diplomatic contexts and their distinctive practices. They contribute to advancing knowledge about the interplay of digital diplomacy, multilateral representation, and the dynamics that shape diplomatic engagements.

Transient States and Timeless Ties: (In)Formality, Power Networks, and the EU Mission in Kosovo

Abstract State-building by external actors can be understood as a practice of intervention in post-conflict spaces characterized by convergences and contestations between different actors striving for power and legitimacy. Informal non-state (armed) groups and clientele networks profit from the contingencies during transition and “capture” emerging formal state institutions to secure private gains and public positions. Order in this newly formed state is established through a dynamic process involving both external actors and domestic power networks. Most of the literature on intervention either focuses on top-down effects of external actors or resistance by local actors, thus falling short of describing the timeless ties of post-war networks and individuals in their day-to-day interaction patterns. How can we then understand the interaction and collusion between post-conflict power networks and external “statebuilders”? We use Bourdieu’s concept of the field to examine the local spaces of interventions and argue that interventions are social and relational practices characterized by day-to-day routines and overlapping, yet co-existing modes of formal and informal interactions. Empirically, we rely on qualitative social network analysis and interviews to visibilize these social practices and collusion between external actors and power networks in Kosovo and its impact on “state-building” efforts by the international community.

Research and innovation paving the way for climate neutrality in urban transport: Analysis of 362 cities on their journey to zero emissions

The EU Mission on Climate Neutral and Smart Cities is an ambitious initiative aiming to involve a wide range of stakeholders and deliver 100 climate-neutral and smart cities by 2030. We analysed the information submitted in the expressions of interest by 362 candidate cities. The majority of the cities’ strategies for climate neutrality include urban transport as a main sector and combine the introduction of new technologies with the promotion of public transport and active mobility. We combined the information from the EU Mission candidate cities with data from the CORDIS and TRIMIS databases, and applied a clustering algorithm to measure proximity to foci of H2020 funding. Our results suggest that preparedness for the EU Mission is correlated with research and innovation activities on transport and mobility. Horizon 2020 activities specific to transport and mobility significantly increased the likelihood of a city to be a candidate. Among the various transport technology research pathways, smart mobility appears to have a major role in the development of solutions for climate neutrality.

Cultural Diplomacy as a Tool of the External Relations Between the UE and the USA

The paper will analyse political strategies deployed for promoting European culture in America. It will compare ‘theoretical’ goals with ‘actual’ actions, that is, cultural activities undertaken by the cultural operators in Washington DC, focusing on spreading the achievements of European art in the US. Finally, it will evaluate the activities undertaken within of cultural diplomacy conducted by the EU and its partners. The paper focuses on how policy/policies is/are performed, discursively negotiated and constructed in different political and cultural environment abroad. Effectiveness of various type of actions such as European Month of Culture, European Days, or European Houses, in propagating knowledge about European history of the nations, its culture. The paper investigates strong/weak points of the current state of affairs in implementing the external cultural relations between the EU in the USA, as well as the issue of implementation of the EU’s soft power in America. The paper aims to verify the following research hypothesis: The European Union interacts with the US audiences through culture. In line with the EU’s capacity and institutional limitations within the sphere of external relations, the EU’s cultural diplomacy in the USA is formal, hierarchical and proper, which in effect builds a stable but not deepened intercultural bond. Additionally, a research question was formulated: What kind of intercultural dialogue is being formally conducted between the European Union and the USA through the cultural actions of the EU Delegation?

Response of the European Union on Return Directive and Readmission Agreements (RDRAs) on Nigerian Irregular Migrants

This study appraised the EU RDRAs on Nigerian irregular migrants and examined the challenges of RDRAs on Nigerian irregular migrants. The study made use of primary sources of data through in-depth interview conducted on EU delegation to Nigeria and ECOWAS, European External Action Service, Frontex, International Organisation for Migration, Idia Renaissance, Nigeria Immigration Service and the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons. Findings from the study showed that two types of return directive exits; voluntary return and enforced return. Voluntary returnees are provided with Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration (AVRR) while enforced returnees are not provided with AVRR, and they are likely detained, escorted by the policemen through the back door and corridor of the airport and deported to Nigeria or transit countries. Findings from the study showed the challenges of RDRAs on Nigerian irregular migrants in that, most return carried out by the EU are not in compliance with the laid down regulation as some migrants are return to countries of transit. Moreover, the conditionality attached to readmission agreements are only applicable for high-skilled migrants, a situation described as brain drain for Nigeria and brain gain for the EU. The study concluded that EU RDRAs are restrictive in nature which provide escape routes for irregular migrants in European countries, and that lack of compliance on RDRAs are the results of unlawful detention of Nigerian irregular migrants by the EU as well as torture and abuse by the security officials and traffickers, a situation that violate human rights.

French Operation Barkhane in Africa – success or failure?

Operation Barkhane began in August 2014 and was a continuation of Operation Serval, targeting Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) structures. The main objective of the French armed presence was to support the local military forces in the fight against terrorism, coordinate the international coalition and support the humanitarian action for the benefit of the local population. The aim of the article is to systematize knowledge and investigate the activities of French entities, also within the EU missions, obliged to fight against terrorism in the Sahel, carrying out the largest antiterrorism operation in Sub-Saharan Africa. France's strategic objective was to help the Sahel countries achieve military self-reliance so that they could provide security and stability in the region without the assistance of foreign forces. Ultimately, France decided to withdraw its soldiers from Mali and Burkina Faso at the beginning of 2022 and had terminated its mission earlier. It was the end of Barkhane and the French antiterrorism involvement on a high scale level in the Sahel. The decision to withdraw has a number of implications for international involvement in the region and will greatly weaken the level of security in the region. This would be very dangerous for Europe, which is not ready for another wave of migration, as well as the international threat of terrorism. It must be indicated that France have maintained a relatively secure situation in the Sahel region.

Multinational cooperation on challenging energy technologies: ‘ITER Project’ an EU mission

In recent decades, the trend of globalization has intensified as a result of the development of technologies and has brought nations closer together. Thus, the closer the minds of the people of the world become, the more similar their needs and demands become. National governments have to meet these needs as universal public goods. Naturally, resources are not consistently distributed around the world, and scientific achievements are limited to a few centers. Therefore, governments have to turn to transnational cooperation to fulfill their governance commitments. Institutionalists interpret international cooperation in the age of globalization as inevitable and in service of the public good. In this article, the development of technology on the process of globalization and multinational cooperation in a very sensitive field such as nuclear energy realized in the framework of the ITER project is discussed, which is a model for global-Local governance promotes by EU.

POLAND TOWARDS THE WAR AND INDEPENDENCE IN KOSOVO

Poland as a member country of the Group has strong economic and military potential in foreign policy and tries to respect the jointly agreed directions of action. Kosovo has become a challenge for Poland of particular importance, because the war starter a few days after country has joined NATO. The research includes analysis of the participation of Poland in the ending of the war in Kosovo, and military involvement through the participation of Polish soldiers in the UN, NATO and EU missions, the participation of Polish politicians in resolving the Kosovo conflict, as well as analysis of the response to the proclaiming of Kosovo's independence. The aim of this article is to develop an evidence-based comprehensive study of the Polish approach to the conflict in Kosovo by showing and analyzing the key features of the conflict as well as the main issues of Polish participation in it. The key pillar of the approaches is a sovereign state acting in accordance with its national interests and important roles played by individual state agencies as well as by non-state, non-governmental and social actors, but also international organizations.

Lezha Energy and Ecological Corridor (LEEC). Climate Resilience through Blue and Green Corridors in Lezha Municipality

This research paper builds on the analytical work conducted by the Doctoral Candidate, initiated on November 2021, during the International PhD Workshop between Polis and Ferrara Universities as well as based on his previous experience with Renewable Energy projects and Evaluation of Ecosystem Services conducted by the candidate under the “Green Lungs for Our Cities” project (link), supported by the EU Delegation in Albania. Given the climate and ecological disturbed balance in urban areas, future planning exercises shall be oriented towards climate neutral and decarbonized cities. Urban and territorial strategies nowadays seek to explore and determine the appropriate instruments for that Nature Based Solutions NBS and Ecosystem Based Solution EBS are enabled to decrease the deterioration of human impact on all the ecological networks. Moreover the Sofia Declaration (Regional Cooperation Council, 2020), an instrument that factorizes the EU Green Deal for Western Balkans indicates precisely that one of 5 key development sectors should be Biodiversity preservation and joint management. Ecological networks including here the hydrology, green areas, geography, climatic conditions, energy metabolisms, transport infrastructure and industrial interactions can coexist in harmony if they are extracted form the ideology of approaching them as separate networks within a linear approach. One can always affect the other therefore “Between them there is no contradiction, but only profound opposition: to be resolved projectually” (Dardi, 2009) . Main objective of this research is to initially seek and determine an adequate relationship between ecosystem services provided by Green, Blue and Natural networks within the urban areas of Koder Marlekaj, Lezhe-Shengjin axis to further connecting them throughout a potential Ecological Corridor that would allow the terrestrial biodiversity of Kune-Vain-Tale protected area access high territory in cases of wildfire, flooding or other extreme-climatic events. Such intervention will pose a new systemic approach towards problems and issues, which are caused mainly by a rigid and linear approach from nowadays Urban Planning and Decision- making practices at a local and national leve. The purpose of this research paper is threefold: (i) to verify the biodiversity preservation potential of a new ecological corridor between high- land and lagoon, (ii) in terlink the mix of urban-energy-ecology nexus within a specific case study whereas ne urban planning tools, (iii) propose relevant measures to increase the resilience of the Lezha-Shengjin territory with regard to Climate Change implications.

Urban transport in the EU Mission on Climate Neutral and Smart Cities: preliminary data from applicants’ expressions of interest

The EU Mission on Climate Neutral and Smart Cities is an ambitious initiative to involve a wide range of stakeholders and deliver 100 climate-neutral and smart cities by 2030. These cities will act as experimentation and innovation hubs to enable all European cities to follow suit by 2050. The results from the expressions of interest suggest that the Mission's objectives are shared by a significant number of cities: 314 EU cities (representing 18% of EU population) plus 48 non-EU cities declared their ambition and preparedness to become climate neutral. Transport is a key sector to address, with the overwhelming majority of applicant cities setting specific targets and policy measures. Electrification of urban transport appears as the main approach towards decarbonization. Nevertheless, the required investments and the repercussion on the citizens’ costs for mobility are major concerns.

Status Of Air Quality In Tirana During Quarantine Imposed Due To Covid-19 Global Pandemic

This research paper builds on the analytical work conducted by Co-PLAN, Institute for Habitat Development under the “Green Lungs for Our Cities” project, supported by the EU Delegation in Albania. This specific publication consists on the analysis of data from a dedicated ground-based monitoring process conducted from March 11th to May 11th, 2020 in 4 different locations of Tirana on PM2.5, PM10 and NO2, based on the protocol and practice established by the Alternative Monitoring Methodology of the Green Lungs project (link). Other sources, such as publications from World Bank “Regional Note on Air Quality Management in Western Balkans”, +IQAir “2019 World Air Quality Report”, European Environmental Agency “Air Quality in Europe – 2019 report” and “Assessing air quality through citizens science”, were also consulted during the analysis of data from this 62-days monitoring practice. The data provide an overview of how concentration levels of the selected air pollutants changed during the lockdown phase and after the removal of measures. The purpose of the monitoring process and of the report was threefold: (i)to verify the direct linkages between air pollutants and sources of pollution, (ii)raise awareness on air pollution among state and non-state actors, (iii)propose relevant measures to reduce urban air pollution for the near to mid-term future.

O výzvach Európskej únie z pohľadu vojenských operácií a misií vedených v rámci spoločnej bezpečnostnej a obrannej politiky

Since the launch of the first military and civilian operations and missions, conducted within the framework of its security and defence policy, the European Union has been trying to constantly improve its structures, mechanisms, and instruments to support stability and security in its neighbourhood and beyond, thus contributing to increasing security not only in the Union, but also in the world. The primary goal of operations and missions led by the Union is to help prevent the emergence of conflicts and crises, or if they have already arisen, to help solve them, increase the capacities of partners, and ultimately protect the Union and its citizens. Given the fact that what happens outside the borders of the Union has a direct impact on its security, the European Union today faces serious security challenges and threats. In order to protect and defend its citizens, it must deal with them and try to solve them using all available means and tools, including the military. That is also why, the authors – as part of their interdisciplinary scientific research – deal with the current challenges of the Union, primarily from the point of view of EU operations and missions conducted within the framework of the Common Security and Defence Policy.

Scaling up EU maritime practices

The European Union is building a maritime management system aimed at achieving a high degree of its participation in the regulation of global maritime economy. The EU intends to secure its leadership in preparation and promotion of its management practices and competencies. One of five EU Missions launched in 2021 is aimed at solving problems related to the World Ocean. The EU expects that the package approach will unite the resources of project participants both inside and outside the association, which will provide for a synergistic effect and optimize implementation of tasks. According to the EU's plan, activities and developments of the mission should become the basis for transition to a more advanced and inclusive formats of management in the maritime sphere. They are expected to ensure the achievement of EU Green Deal goals, as well as the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular, SDG 14.

Developing Management Practices in: “Living Labs” That Result in Healthy Soils for the Future, Contributing to Sustainable Development

There is general agreement on the need for sustainable development, but the concept has remained rather vague until seventeen specific goals (SDGs) were approved by the UN Assembly in 2015, including targets and indicators. The EU followed this example by introducing their Green Deal in 2019. Soils play a very important role in realizing these goals by the intended year of 2030 in terms of (amongst other less directly related goals) contributing to food production (SDG2: “zero hunger”), good health and wellbeing (SDG3), water quality (SDG6: “clean water and sanitation”), sustainable production (SDG12: ”sustainable consumption and production”), carbon capture and greenhouse gas emission (SDG13: “climate action”) and soil health and biodiversity preservation (SDG15: “life on land”). Of course, not only soils but many other scientific disciplines contribute to achieving the SDGs, and the EU Mission Board for Soil Health and Food has, therefore, defined soil health in terms of specific soil contributions to interdisciplinary ecosystem services: “soils supporting ecosystem services in line with the SDGs and the Green Deal”. Restricting attention in this paper to soils, the Board has defined six indicators for soil health that allow an integrated assessment of the role of soils, reported in this paper in a slightly modified version: presence of soil pollutants, organic matter content, structure, biodiversity, nutrient content and water regimes. Currently, different indicator systems are being used while soil research is rather fragmented, as future environmental policies are still being discussed. The research and policy arenas face major challenges at this point in time to rise to the occasion by defining clear operational assessment procedures for soil health that will, above all, be accepted and internalized by land users, of which farmers manage the largest land area. Only then can implementation be realized in practice. An effort is needed to test the vast body of existing techniques and expertise and focus new research on gaps that appear. This is discussed in detail for the six indicators distinguished, and particular attention is paid to defining threshold values, separating the “good” from the “not yet good enough”. New ways have to be explored to achieve real and productive interactions between scientists and stakeholders, including farmers. The establishment of Living Labs aimed at realizing successful Lighthouses is, therefore, seen as an effective way for scientists to work with farmers in developing innovative management schemes, including the role of soils, expressed in terms of indicators and thresholds for soil health. Such procedures should be the basis for future rules and regulations, where a “one-out, all-out” principle can be used for the various indicators to avoid the current complex discussions about deriving a single, overall soil health indicator.