EU Member States Research Articles

Integration of legal databases in the context of EU accession aspirations

It is determined that the process of cooperation within the framework of the European Union has increased the need for identification and exchange of legal information coming from regional and national authorities at the European level. This need is partially met by digitally accessible legal information and the widespread use of the Internet. However, the exchange of legal information is largely limited by the differences that exist in different national legal systems, as well as the differences in their technical systems used to store and display the law on their respective websites. This hinders interaction between the information systems of national and European institutions, despite the increase in the availability of documents in electronic format. At the same time, the interconnection of national and international legal information from various sources and their presentation in the form of linked data of legal knowledge will undoubtedly improve the process of searching for legal information, expanding the possibilities of inquiries that are not currently possible. Moreover, in an increasingly digital society, where the number of cross-border civil and criminal proceedings is rapidly increasing, and given the complex diversity of different legal systems in the EU Member States, the simplification and facilitation of cross-border judicial cooperation is essential to ensure effective access of citizens and businesses to justice. At the same time, the system of identification and metadata should be well known to citizens and specialists in the field of law. In addition, to increase the chances of finding case law that is supported by an identifier and metadata, these court decisions should be searchable - by identifier and a minimal set of metadata - through a common interface. The exchange of digital evidence in the EU is also an important aspect. Currently, countries cooperate using private international law in cross-border criminal cases and exchange digital evidence based on these tools. The choice of tool depends on the countries involved and the type of information required.

Advancing Circular Economy through Knowledge Transfer: A Decade of Research Insights

Economic growth and sustainable development are central themes of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations and adopted by the European Commission for EU member countries. Transitioning to a circular economy (CE) aligns with the SDGs, particularly through the principles of reduce, reuse, and recycle (3Rs). This comparative analysis synthesises the contributions of multiple scholars, providing a cohesive understanding of current advancements and challenges in CE and sustainable resource management. Key themes include stakeholder collaboration, technological innovations, waste management, and policy frameworks. Effective waste management and valorisation of materials are highlighted, with significant advancements in electronic waste treatment, automotive shredder residue processing, and construction waste recycling. Moreover, the study emphasises the importance of cooperation through partnerships, as outlined in SDG17, and knowledge transfer in building trust within developed countries. The literature review reveals interactions between knowledge transfer components, such as research and development, foreign direct investment, and CE indicators, including circular material use rate and recycling rate. A bibliometric technique and VOSviewer were employed for visually representative and comprehensible literature analysis. The findings suggest that the integrated efforts of various stakeholders, technological advancements, and robust policy frameworks are essential for achieving a sustainable and circular future. By analysing these components, the research aims to evaluate the potential of EU member states to achieve sustainable development, providing valuable insights into the theoretical approaches and indicators used in CE and knowledge transfer studies.

The emergence of international police cooperation in Europe with the creation of the TREVI group

The article examines the roots of international police cooperation in Europe, dating back to the creation of the TREVI Group in the 1970s. The format of the Group is considered and the reasons for its placement outside the format of the European Communities are explained. The centralization and formalization of international police cooperation in Europe, which was observed with the creation of the TREVI Group, is considered. The powers of the TREVI Group to fight terrorism are being investigated. It is emphasized that the granting of such powers to the Group was the result of a response to the threats faced by European states in the 1970s. The debate on the format of the group, which arose among European states, primarily between the United Kingdom, France and Germany, is considered. Germany’s proposals to create a centralized structure and the United Kingdom’s and France’s proposals to create an informal political association are under consideration. It is emphasized that the format of the Group reflects the asymmetric impact of security threats in different countries, which led to the unevenness of the preferences of the states during its formation. The Group’s chosen format reflected the «common denominator» of these political influences. Along with the existence of a common desire to develop international police cooperation, EU member states differed in their vision of the format of such cooperation. It is emphasized that the final format of the TREVI Group reflected the complex structural interdependencies in security issues between the member states of the European Communities and the politicization of security issues in domestic and international discourses. It is emphasized that the negotiations on the creation of the TREVI Group took place in conditions of strong internal politicization of the issue of combating terrorism, which shaped the preferences of states at the EU level. At the same time, the inability of states to agree on a formal structure led to the formation of the TREVI Group primarily as a platform for discussion and cooperation between participating states and an informal body promoting practical cooperation. It is concluded that the Trevi Group has become a relatively free political association, independent of the bodies of the European Communities.

Taxonomy Regulation as a New Instrument for the Sustainable Management of the Forest Environment in Europe

Regulation (EU) 2020/852 of the European Parliament, also known as the Taxonomy Regulation, facilitates environmentally sustainable investments. It is part of the concept of the European Green Deal and a ‘tool’ for financial institutions, enterprises, and investors, facilitating the assessment of the environmental impact of a particular project. The Regulation contains the criteria an activity must meet to be considered environmentally sustainable. The role of the Taxonomy Regulation is to enable the flow of public and private capital towards ecological and sustainable activities. The document does not need to be implemented into the legal order of individual EU member-states, which results in its direct application. The main financial instruments enabling the achievement of the goals of the Taxonomy Regulation may be green bonds and other forms of capital raising by entrepreneurs and forest ownership structures. The assumption of the Regulation is to achieve the principles of sustainable environmental activity when spending funds obtained from private investors. It is an issue of key significance to identify the areas of management and financial accounting in the operational activities of forest enterprises that can be qualified for the Taxonomy Regulation. Forestry activities, including the processes mentioned therein, the objectives of the New EU Forest Strategy, and the LULUCF Regulation, are to play an essential role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The role of forestry in the supply chain in its broad sense is also considered. Forestry and forest management can receive capital for sustainable development due to the threat resulting from exclusions that strengthen the protective function of the forest (the protection of biodiversity). These processes will occur at the expense of production and numerous social functions.

Technology acceptance of balcony solar systems in Hungary – exploring influencing factors in a late-adopter country

PurposeBalcony solar panels are popular and widespread in most EU Member States, except in Hungary, where their use is currently banned. However, the lifting of this strict ban is expected to be approved in the near future. The aim of this research is to investigate which factors influence residents’ intention to use balcony solar panels in Hungary and how strong these impacts are.Design/methodology/approachUnified theory of acceptance and use of technology 2 (UTAUT2) is applied to predict which factors may influence residents’ behavioral intention to use this technology. Six components are tested: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, hedonic motivation and price value. Data were gathered in Hungary in 2023 using an online survey. A quota sampling method was employed during the data-collection process.FindingsOur results confirm the importance of all components except effort expectancy. In addition to the economic benefits that can be achieved, citizens consider energy independence and a sense of freedom to be important in the adoption of such systems.Research limitations/implicationsDespite the large share of positive responses (expressed intention) that is identified, a gap between intention and action can be expected.Practical implicationsTo increase the rate of acceptance, transparent regulation, simplified administration and the application of nudges may be crucially important. However, the widespread use of balcony solar systems is hindered by the lack of a modern, energy-efficient building stock, emphasizing the urgency of deep renovation in the Hungarian household sector.Originality/valueThis research is the first to use the UTAUT2 model to analyze the technology acceptance of balcony solar systems in a late-adopter country.

The European Green Deal and turbulence for non-member states

The European Green Deal (EGD) has had a significant impact on EU member states. In this article, we examine the extent to which it can also have large consequences for non-members. Based on a qualitative approach comparing Norway and the UK, and drawing on a burgeoning literature on ‘turbulence’, we ask whether the EGD creates turbulence in non-member states, what the nature of this turbulence is, and whether the extent and nature of turbulence varies with how closely affiliated a non-member is with the EU. Despite the ambitious climate policies of both countries, we identify a significant amount of turbulence generated by the EGD. Interestingly, we also find that turbulence increases with a closer EU-affiliation. However, our analysis also reveals an impressive capacity in both countries to adapt to their turbulent conditions, and a surprising durability of climate and energy policy in the face of turbulence.

The Shadow Economy, an Enigma, in the Agriculture of 15 EU Member States over the Period 1996–2019

The focus of this review is the shadow economy (SE) in agriculture. Our research aim is to empirically quantify the SE in the agricultural sector based on data collected in the EU-15 member states from 1996 to 2019. We apply the multiple indicators multiple causes model to estimate the levels and development of the SE in these countries. Furthermore, we investigate how the size of the agricultural SE differs between the EU-15 member states and how it affects the economy overall. The results show that (a) the main potential for SE lies in agricultural subsidies, the effects of taxation, the share of imports, and factor income in agriculture; (b) certain patterns and differences exist among the countries, which can be associated with the north-south-west divide; and (c) there are higher levels of SEs in agriculture compared to in the overall economies. This review emphasizes the potential for measuring the SE in agriculture, while recognizing current methodological limitations. Recommendations include diversifying methods, standardizing definitions internationally, and enhancing theoretical foundations. Furthermore, expanding research to include more regions and improve visibility and transparency in measurements is crucial if informed policy is to be made to benefit agriculture globally.

‘Pooling and Sharing’ and ‘Permanent Structured Cooperation’ as the Current EU’s Defense and Security Integration Modes

ABSTRACT When an urgent response in international relations is needed, the EU institutions and Member States’ governments face a deficiency of effective and practical mechanisms in security cooperation. Developing autonomous programs and concepts that address this dilemma, preventing duplication of endeavors and investments, and maximizing cost-effectiveness by broadening military-political consultations on all issues of common concern is challenging. This article analyses the path and logic of EU security integration in the recent decade. In this context, the origins and goals of the pooling and sharing concept are essential to analyze the continuity of security integration, where the Council’s introduction of Permanent Structured Cooperation in defense and security is an important step forward. Therefore, this article will investigate whether and how P&S and PESCO have been related and complemented, even though both differ in the prism of aims, logic, decision-making processes, and funding. Due to budgetary throwbacks in recent decades and the war in Ukraine intensified after February 2022, EU Member States’ governments might evaluate their approach to the level of engagement in common security programs.

The neutral servant: the Czech EU Council Presidency and its framing by the political parties

ABSTRACT The rotating Presidency of the EU Council has been considered as a neutral and technocratic service that circulates among EU Member States. However, this traditional view is challenged in an era where the EU has become politicized and contested. This article explores whether this neutral technocratic approach still holds by examining the preparatory stage of the Czech EU Council Presidency in 2022. Despite the highly politicized nature of the general Czech EU debate, the Presidency was framed by domestic political parties – including the populist ones – as a neutral task or challenge. The depoliticization of the Presidency can be attributed to its low attractiveness to populist parties, the limited number of participants in the debate, and the prominence of more salient EU-related topics, such as the war in Ukraine.

Stability of food security in EU member states – does the common agricultural policy ensure resilience of food systems during crises?

Stability of food security in EU member states – does the common agricultural policy ensure resilience of food systems during crises?

A Comparison of European Union and Turkish Reports on the Statistics of Experimental Animal Use in Toxicity Testing.

The data on the number of animals used for experimental purposes, with a particular focus on regulatory toxicity studies, in Turkey and EU member states plus Norway (EU+), were compared for the period 2015 to 2020 (UK data after Brexit for 2020 were included too). The total number of listed vertebrates used for regulatory toxicity testing in the full 6-year reporting period in Turkey was 3.6% of that reported for the EU+. However, these numbers showed an increasing trend over the reporting period in Turkey, while the trend decreased in the EU+. In the top three most-used species for regulatory toxicology purposes in Turkey, 41% were fish (68,758 animals), followed by rats (29%; 49,975 animals), and then mice (20%; 33,292 animals). Turkey used low numbers of cats and dogs, while the corresponding number for the EU+ was more than 70-fold higher. Non-human primates were not used at all in Turkey, whereas about 34,000 were used in EU+ laboratories. The majority of toxicity tests (57%) performed in Turkey were categorised as 'Other' toxicity tests, and 27% were acute and sub-acute toxicity tests. Successful replacement alternatives (e.g. in vitro and in silico approaches) are already used in a wide range of research areas. However, although this new research and testing paradigm is underpinned by scientific evidence, the legislation and pace of acceptance of these new techniques in Turkey is considerably lagging behind other countries.

From ignorance to awareness: Quality of collaborative governance enhances public awareness of AMR

In representative democracies, the public administration plays a pivotal role in managing a myriad of public policies. While considerable knowledge exists regarding how public issue awareness influences political competition before policy enactment, its persistence in the administrative aftermath is characterized by much more uncertainty. This study addresses this puzzle within the challenging context of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) governance in Europe, posing the question: How does administrative governance shape public AMR awareness? Drawing on newly collected expert survey data from all EU member states and a recent Eurobarometer survey measuring behavioral aspects related to AMR (N = 26.502), the findings show that different aspects of administrative governance yield mixed results. Notably, there is a strong and positive relationship between the quality of collaborative governance and public awareness. These results underscore the critical role of administrative governance quality in understanding public behavior, particularly in the context of combating AMR.

Noise information in sales literature of machinery as a support to Sell and Buy Quiet

The Sell & Buy Quiet concept helps employers to protect their workers from risks arising from the exposure to noise emitted by machines. Reliable noise emission data are key to successfully implement this concept in practice. The NOMAD (NOise MAchinery Directive) project aims to assess and improve the quality of noise information provided by machinery manufacturers in sales literature and instruction manuals of machinery in accordance with the Machinery Directive 2006/42/EC. Here, we present the results of a pre-market surveillance exercise, which examined the compliance of noise information in sales literature. Machinery manufacturers have to provide this information in compliance with the European Machinery Directive, if the sales literature contains the performance characteristics of the machine. The study investigated 85 samples of sales literature and 45 instruction manuals collected in five EU Member States. The faults found in sales literature were similar to those identified in the original NOMAD survey (NOMAD Phase 1), including the absence of noise information, confusion between noise emission and noise exposure quantities, incorrect notations and terminology, as well as missing noise emission quantities required by the Machinery Directive. Based on our findings, we make recommendations to stakeholders to improve the situation.

Sufficiency Initiatives and Municipalities: Opportunities and Limitations for Bringing People and Politics Together

This article examines the potential and challenges of sufficiency initiatives within the urban environment, focusing on their ability to bring people and politics together. Drawing on research from the EU-funded “FULFILL” project, which includes surveys, interviews and case studies in five EU Member States, this study explores the role of civil society initiatives in fostering sufficiency—a concept that advocates for meeting human needs within planetary boundaries by altering lifestyles, societal norms, and regulatory frameworks. Sufficiency initiatives find themselves in a precarious position against a backdrop of growth-oriented urban development and face barriers such as lack of resources, legal and regulatory challenges, measurement difficulties, and inertia of municipalities. However, the study also identifies examples of fruitful cooperation between municipalities and initiatives and identifies enablers for successful collaboration, including aligned goals, engaged individuals, and effective communication. By providing an outlook for short-, mid-, and long-term governance perspectives, this article argues for strategic niche management in the short term, development of metrics for sufficiency in the medium term, and a systemic shift in urban dynamics in the long term. As urban sufficiency initiatives offer services and infrastructure to promote sustainable living, they are critical players in guiding cities towards ecological and social resilience. This article contributes to the discourse on urban sustainability by highlighting the importance of municipalities in nurturing sufficiency initiatives that can drive social well-being and environmental stewardship.

Beyond the great firewall: EU and US responses to the China challenge in the global digital economy

ABSTRACT China’s Great Firewall was designed to control information flows to keep citizens in and the wider world out. Consequently, until recently China’s economic ascendancy was not mirrored in the global digital economy. However, China’s increasing digital footprint and championing of national technology firms present numerous economic and security challenges for the EU and US as the dominant digital powers. This paper investigates how growing perceptions of China-based threats in the digital domain have shaped EU (including Member State-level) and US policies. Two pertinent cases – Huawei (hardware provider) and TikTok (digital platform) – illustrate how threat perceptions have catalysed securitization moves to restrict Chinese firms’ roles within national digital economies. Western policymakers are increasingly concerned about China’s capacity to weaponize technologically interdependent relationships by exploiting its firms’ presence within Western networks. Yet significant differences between EU Member States’ perceptions precluded both a uniform EU-level response and more extensive transatlantic cooperation.

Upstream Review of intra-EU ICSID Arbitrations and Its Consequences: A Commentary on the Order of the Bundesgerichtshof (German Federal Court of Justice) in I ZB 43/22 MAINSTREAM Renewable Power et al. v. Germany

EU Member States may have recourse to ‘upstream’ national judicial protection under the German Civil Procedure Code to declare inadmissible and thereby preclude intra-EU investment arbitration proceedings brought under the auspices of the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) Convention. That remarkable conclusion by the Bundesgerichtshof (German Federal Court of Justice) constitutes the first attempt of a higher court of an EU Member State to render compatible the seemingly contradictory obligations on national courts arising from EU law and the ICSID Convention. However, even more important than the court’s conformity assessment are the inherent consequences of its conclusion: the incompatibility of the ICSID Convention with EU law and the obligation, on all EU Member States and their institutions, to disapply that convention in intra-EU investment arbitration matters and ultimately to denounce it collectively.

The Pillar 2 Directive and the Qualified Domestic (Minimum) Top-up Tax Puzzle

The article argues for using a teleological interpretation of the Pillar 2 Directive to allow EU Member States to comply with Pillar 2’s soft law requirements for the qualified domestic minimum top-up tax (QDMTT) and its safe harbour (SH). This interpretation is necessary because the directive’s text is not aligned with certain requirements under Pillar 2 soft law since the directive was adopted before the Inclusive Framework issued any administrative guidance. Without the teleological interpretation, EU Member States cannot comply with the qualified domestic top-up tax (QDTT) requirements and, therefore, cannot attain its SH. This would decrease taxpayers’ legal certainty and undermine EU Member States’ fiscal interests.To pursue the argument, the article analyses Pillar 2’s soft law, i.e., the model rules, the commentary, and two sets of administrative guidance related to the QDMTT and its SH, and compares their provisions with the relevant provisions of the Pillar 2 Directive. Consequently, the study offers solutions to discrepancies between these two sets of rules and joins a broader discussion regarding the relationship between EU tax law and soft law.

EU Consumers, Renewable Energy, and Sustainable Development – An Exploratory Market-Oriented Research Approach

The European Union countries are working to reach the truly ambitious objective of achieving a climate-neutral continent by 2050. Increasing the employment of renewable energy is one of the strategic directions promoted to fulfill this purpose. Although the socioeconomic and political context has accelerated the use of renewable energy sources, shifting to green energy raises significant challenges and generates a substantial impact both at the macroeconomic and microeconomic levels, with particular attention given to the overall behavior of the EU consumers within this transitional process. The paper presents the results of an exploratory approach aiming to assess, based on the secondary data and from a market-oriented perspective, the relationships between the production, consumption, and share of renewable energy, the attitude of EU consumers toward renewable energy and the extent to which they are willing to consider it as a reliable alternative to the traditional energy, in connection to the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of the sustainable development in the EU Member States. Keywords: Renewable energy, EU consumers, Marketing, Sustainable development

Analysis of registered clinical trials in Italy regarding dermatology (2003-2022): a cross-sectional study on historical trend and prospects for industry investments.

This cross-sectional analysis intends to evaluate trend and outlook of industry clinical research in Italy regarding dermatology and its prospects for the next few years. A computerized search of ClinicalTrial.gov database was carried out considering the 20-year period 2003-2022 using the following string: "Skin Diseases OR Skin cancer OR Skin Neoplasms OR Skin Infection OR Skin Lesion OR Skin Ulcer OR Skin Laxity OR Skin toxicity OR Dermatologic Complication OR Skin abnormalities". During the last 20 years 690 Industry Clinical Trials (IndCTs) were conducted in Italy regarding dermatological investigations, almost entirely funded by non-Italian pharmaceutical companies, involving 4497 centers, and recruiting an average of 13.0 subjects per site. The number of controlled and randomized studies has grown quite regularly and in the last 5 years they represented 79.6% of IndCTs initiated. Countries most frequently sharing with Italy international protocols were Spain (75.0%), Germany (71.8%), France (68.5%), the USA (67.4%), and the UK (54.8%). These data point to a historical involvement of Italy in dermatology IndCTs lower than in the major European countries. However, the war in Ukraine has deprived IndCTs of the contribution of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, meaning a mean of about 40 new IndCTs per year in a population of 200 million inhabitants. In contrast, many indicators point to Italy as a country with potential in dermatology wider than used in the past: an efficient health care system accessible to any citizen or resident, 4.6 million dermatological interventions per year, low density of IndCTs concerning dermatology, good production of scientific papers in indexed medical journals, relatively low cost of services and labour and geopolitical stability. The European Clinical Trials Information System's (CTIS), mandatory for the EU member states since early 2023 allows common, simplified, and harmonized regulatory procedures over the life cycle of clinical trials in Europe (EMA, 2023) and plays in favor of Italy's greater competitiveness in clinical research.

EU State aid and the tax allocation of multinationals’ profits

This contribution examines the impact of the EU prohibition of State aid over the tax allocation of multinationals’ profits. All EU Member States apportion the taxable profit of multinational groups in accordance with transfer pricing regulations based on the arm’s length standard, namely, following a market valuation rationale. Although apparently neutral, such a standard may lead to prohibited aid both at the level of its regulatory design and its enforcement. These issues have been recently exacerbated due to the assessment of the “tax rulings” cases, i.e. State aid proceedings opened against the granting of individual, unpublished rulings by certain Member States to some of the largest multinationals operating in the EU, recently reviewed by the ECJ. Unlike most of the scholarly literature, which has focused on the specific issues raised in these cases, this article aims to comprehensively analyse the issues raised by the said regulations when confronted with the EU State aid regime, in line with the latest jurisprudence in this field. The examination starts by defining the aim and contradictions of the arm’s length standard, which is necessary to build a proper reference framework against which deviations resulting in a selective advantage may be detected. Such derogations potentially resulting in prohibited aid may arise when assessing the scope of these regulations, the existence of specific regimes deviating from the arm’s length standard rationale, and in the context of individual administrative acts (e.g. tax rulings) deviating from the content of the applicable transfer pricing regulations.