EU Member States Research Articles

Bridging the gap: Overcoming the 85 mm railway gauge difference between Ukraine and Europe using principles of circular economy and European service quality standards

The ongoing railway reforms in Ukraine are crucial for the country’s integration into the European Union’s transportation network. A major challenge lies in the difference in track gauge widths: Ukraine predominantly uses a 1520 mm gauge, while European countries utilize a 1435 mm gauge. This 85 mm difference presents significant logistical and operational barriers, hindering smooth cross-border trade and travel. The study examines the current state of Ukraine’s railway system, highlighting the urgent need for infrastructure modernization to meet European standards. Methods include a comparative analysis of Ukraine’s railway network with those of EU member states, focusing on integration challenges and potential solutions. Results indicate that aligning Ukraine’s railway with European standards could substantially enhance connectivity, reduce transit times, and foster economic growth. However, “Ukrzaliznytsia’s” slow adaptation to these necessary changes is a major roadblock. The study concludes that the construction of a standard-gauge railway linking Ukraine to the EU is vital not only for improving trade routes but also for supporting Ukraine’s broader political and economic aspirations towards EU membership. Circular economy principles, such as resource optimisation, extending the life cycle of existing infrastructure and reusing materials from dismantled railway facilities, can offer a cost-effective and sustainable approach. This infrastructural change will serve as a catalyst for deeper integration, strengthening Ukraine’s position within the European transportation network.

Thou Shalt Not Conduct Research on Software? Text and Data Mining of Computer Programs in the Current EU Copyright Framework

Abstract The proliferation of generative AI has steered the discussion about text and data mining (TDM) in copyright law towards the problem of generative models. However, generative AI is not the only case for TDM. Mining data from computer programs can improve defect detection, discover design patterns, facilitate maintenance, summarize code in natural language or identify security vulnerabilities. The potential of such research, and the risk of skewing its results due to inadequate data justifies a venture into the scope of permitted TDM activities in relation to software. This article explores the intersection of TDM and the protection of computer programs in EU copyright law, focusing on the reproduction and alteration rights under the Software Directive. It argues that although among the new TDM exceptions and limitations in the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market only the general one explicitly mentions computer programs, the research exception can also be applied if implemented carefully. This article also shows that computer programs can be reproduced in a way relevant to copyright law during TDM activities aimed at extracting data from traditional literary or artistic works. It offers an interpretation of Art. 5(1) of the Software Directive that prevents the misusing of copyright to thwart TDM in such scenarios. Finally, it analyses the diverging implementation strategies of TDM provisions adopted by EU Member States in the context of computer programs. By examining these issues, this article aims to clarify the scope of permissible TDM activities and advocate for policies that support research.

Validation of the European Oncology toolkit for the self-assessment of Quality of Life (EUonQoL-Kit) in cancer patients and survivors: study protocol of a pan European survey

BackgroundEuropean cancer programmes and policies lack a unified health-related quality of life (HRQoL) assessment tool. The European oncology quality of life toolkit (EUonQoL-Kit) is a novel set of HRQoL questionnaires, co-designed with cancer patients and survivors, translated and culturally adapted into 31 European languages, and with both static and dynamic electronic administration modes. The main aim of this study is the psychometric assessment of the static version. Secondary aims include evaluating the EUonQoL-Kit acceptability, cross-validating the administration modes, exploring individual factors potentially affecting HRQoL and HRQoL inequalities between countries.MethodsA sample of 4,500 participants, including three groups (active treatment, survivors, and palliative care) from 45 centres in 25 EU Member States and 7 associated countries, will be enrolled in a multicentre observational cross-sectional study. All participants will complete the static EUonQoL-Kit; three subsamples (each 10% of the total sample) will also respectively complete the following: a) dynamic EUonQoL-Kit, based on Item Response Theory (IRT)/Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT), b) FACT-G and EQ-5L-5D, and c) static EUonQoL-Kit (re-test). Psychometric analyses will encompass exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (measurement model and structural validity), Cronbach's alpha (internal consistency), intraclass correlation coefficient (test–retest reliability), Pearson/Spearman correlation (concurrent validity), comparison of group scores (construct validity), and Differential Item Functioning (cross-country item equivalence). Secondary analyses will evaluate participant response time and rate, and static/dynamic score differences. Regression models will estimate associations between individual factors and HRQoL.DiscussionThe EUonQoL-Kit will serve to systematically incorporate patient perspectives into European cancer policies and to address HRQoL inequalities across Europe.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05947903, 2023–06-28.

The success of the Eurosceptic opposition forces in the European Parliament deputies’ elections 2024: causes and consequences

The article examines the results of the elections of deputies of the European Parliament, which took place on June 6-9, 2024 in all 27 member states of the European Union. Ten mains officially registered European parties participating in these elections are represented, including six so-called Euro-optimistic ones supporting the EU, and three Eurosceptic ones criticizing the current state of the Union. The analysis of the main results of the activities of the European Parliament of the previous IX convocation from 2019 to 2024, including the results of the activities of all parliamentary groups operating in it and representing eight leading European parties, was carried out. The key trends in the transformation of the European party and political system over the past five years are considered, including the decline in popularity of the leading European parties and their member parties: Conservatives, Social Democrats, Liberals and Greens, and the growing attractiveness of Eurosceptic and populist parties in many EU member states, electoral successes in national elections of representatives of the right, including right-wing radicals the parties that have been in opposition for many years and the aggravation of problems related to the security and defense capability of the EU. The electoral positions of the leading European parties, as well as the forecast estimates of their participation in the Eurovision 2024. The results of these European elections are considered and the results of the formation of a new structure of the European Parliament are analyzed, including the formation of new opposition Eurosceptic right-wing groups: Patriots for Europe, formed by the Hungarian Fidesz party of V. Orban, the French National Rally party of M. Le Pen, the Czech ANO party of A. Babiash, etc., and the Europe of Sovereign Nations, which arose on the initiative of the Alternative for Germany party.

A reflective overview: European vocational education and training reform: The Copenhagen process 2002 to 2024

The European Union’s (EU) Copenhagen Process on cooperation in vocational education and training (VET), initiated in 2002, is a voluntary method that coordinates VET reform in Europe. In terms of this process, EU Member States, the European Commission and the social partners agree, at ministerial level, on common VET-related objectives, priorities and statistical targets to be met over a five- to ten-year period. Progress is monitored and political momentum maintained through regular reporting, exchanges of experience and periodic revisions of reform objectives, priorities and statistical targets. This article outlines the origins of the Copenhagen Process and discusses its evolution and influence on European VET policy since 2002. The writer argues that the process has proved to be an effective working method. It has strengthened European cooperation in VET, provided the basis for common European instruments and principles, influenced national reforms and raised the profile of VET in other policy areas. The writer also argues that, while the Copenhagen Process has operated at a multinational, trans-European level, its principles of partnership, resources and momentum can be used to create effective partnerships and networks at national, sectoral and local levels in order to bring about VET reform.

Problems of Distance Learning in EU Countries During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The article is dedicated to the analysis of distance learning problems faced by EU Member states during the COVID-19 pandemic. Each EU member state was forced to transform its education policy, trying not only to reduce the risks of infection during professional contacts between teachers and students, but also to ensure the maintenance of the necessary quality of the educational process. The ambiguous influence of distance learning on the level of academic achievement of students in various EU countries is shown. The factors that hindered distance learning, including low incomes, housing and other material deprivation, belonging of students and their families to socially vulnerable segments of the population, the level of education of parents of schoolchildren and students are identified. The negative consequences of restrictive measures implemented by the EU countries in the education sector are revealed. Attention is focused on the risk of reducing the level of competitiveness of future graduates of educational institutions in the labor market due to their lack of knowledge. The reaction of the national authorities of the EU countries to the situation in the education sector, expressed in the adoption of a set of urgent measures, is investigated, including additional classes with lagging students, the preparation and active use of teaching materials, the provision of free SIM cards for an unlimited period of time to students from low-income families, providing computers and Internet access to children in need. It is stated that the education sector in the EU countries has demonstrated the necessary adaptability to the situation, having found support from the authorities.

Brexit, Science and Higher Education: Legal Problems and Regulatory Dilemmas of Disintegration

The purpose of the study is a dialectical consideration of the sphere of science and higher education as a factor influencing the development of integration interaction between integration entities and member states and preventing disintegration. The authors substantiate that over the years of EU membership, the United Kingdom has become a highly integrated state that has received numerous benefits in the field of science and higher education, for which Brexit can be considered a step back. The concluded agreements between London and Brussels, as well as the adopted British legislation, on the one hand, contributed to a decrease in the flow of students and representatives of the academic community to the UK, and on the other, became an obstacle to the UK’s participation in projects for organizing mobility and developing the potential of universities within the framework of EU educational and research programs, previously making up a significant portion of UK university funding. As a result, the British government did not give up attempts to restore a high degree of interaction with the EU in this area. Following Windsor Framework Agreement, the two parties agreed on UK’s participation in European programs on an equal basis with colleagues from EU member states and access to appropriate funding, which, however, only partially compensates for the negative consequences of ending membership in EU. The authors emphasize that Brexit confirms that international interaction in science and higher education is an important factor in strengthening integration construction, which is fully relevant for the development and strengthening of integration of states within the Eurasian Economic Union.

Positions of the Leading European Parties on the Eve of the European Parliament Elections 2024

The article analyses the main trends in the transformation of the party and political system of the European Union on the eve of the next elections to the European Parliament in June 2024. The article examines the main events of recent years that had the main impact on the process of this transformation. New trends in the change of this system were noted, which included strengthening the popularity and influence of Eurosceptic parties, increasing internal tension concerning relations between old and new members of the European Union. The research demonstrates that following the results of the national parliamentary elections held over the past five years in almost all EU member states, the influence of the leading political parties, which for many years occupied dominant positions in the executive and representative authorities of these countries, has significantly decreased. The phenomenon of increasing representation of women in the bodies of the EU and its member states and its impact on their formation is considered. The influence of changes in the social structure of the European community and their impact on the electoral preferences of Europeans is analysed. The preelection positions of all leading European parties that currently have their factions in the European Parliament are presented, including their election manifestos and candidacies for the post of the President of the European Commission (EC), the so-called Spitzenkandidaten. The forecasts of the results of the participation of leading panEuropean political parties in the European Parliament Elections 2024, made by a number of European non-governmental organizations and leading media holdings, as well as possible options for post-election inter-party coalitions that shape positions of the European Parliament, are demonstrated.

ЗАРУБЕЖНЫЙ ОПЫТ ФОРМИРОВАНИЯ ИНСТИТУЦИОНАЛЬНЫХ УСЛОВИЙ АДАПТАЦИИ АГРОПРОДОВОЛЬСТВЕННЫХ СИСТЕМ К ИЗМЕНЕНИЮ КЛИМАТА

The relevance of the study is due to the need to ensure sustainable development of agri-food systems (AFS) in the context of global climate change. The search for an answer to the climate challenge requires studying effective institutional mechanisms for adapting AFS in countries with developed climate economies. The article presents the experience of state support for adaptation measures implemented within the framework of the Common Agricultural Policy in the EU countries. The main national programs of the EU member states are analyzed and their distinctive features are identified. Particular attention is paid to financial instruments for supporting public and private initiatives in the direction of increasing the resilience of agri-food systems to climate change.

Vaccination of pregnant women: an overview of European policies and strategies to promote it

Maternal immunization is a valuable tool for protecting mother and unborn child from vaccine-preventable diseases. However, the implementation of strategies for vaccinating pregnant women has only recently gained traction. This work is aimed at providing an overview of European vaccination strategies and gathering evidence on interventions enhancing vaccination knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors (KAB) in pregnant women. To summarize current pregnancy vaccination strategies in Europe, we consulted literature, institutional national health system websites, and the ECDC Vaccine Scheduler. The review of evidence on interventions targeting pregnant women’s vaccination KAB was performed by searching primary studies on PubMed and Web of Science. The 27 EU member states offer various vaccinations in pregnancy, but only 10 recommend all of these: tetanus, pertussis, diphtheria, influenza, and COVID-19, albeit with different administration schedules. The literature review included 7 studies, 3 from Italy and 4 from other European countries (UK, Netherlands, Greece, Poland, and Ukraine). They were conducted in various settings such as childbirth preparation courses, prenatal visits, and online platforms, and all included educational interventions providing information on vaccine safety and efficacy during pregnancy. Knowledge about vaccines and vaccine-preventable diseases, generally low in the pre-intervention period, increased post-intervention, with a rise in awareness of the risks associated with infectious diseases and the recommended vaccines, a reduction in vaccine-related misinformation, and a greater propensity to vaccinate both newborns and themselves. Furthermore, there was a significant increase in adherence to recommended vaccinations, particularly among those with higher educational levels. However, vaccine hesitancy persisted, influenced by factors such as fear of adverse events and the lack of recommendations from healthcare providers. Variations in pregnancy vaccination strategies across Europe emphasize the importance of establishing a unified framework to optimize maternal and fetal health outcomes through evidence-based policies. Educational interventions may positively impact pregnant women’s KAB, therefore promoting vaccination uptake.

Does Common Agricultural Policy Influence Regional Disparities and Environmental Sustainability in European Union Countries?

This study examines the impact of the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) funds, specifically the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (FEADR) and the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (FEGA), on a range of economic, social, and environmental outcomes across European regions. Utilizing Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squares (FMOLS) estimators, this research analyses 13 equations corresponding to various dependent variables, including employment rates, poverty levels, agricultural productivity, and environmental indicators such as greenhouse gas emissions and renewable energy production from agriculture. This analysis covers the period from 2010 to 2021, and draws upon a balanced sample of 301 observations to ensure robust estimations. Results indicate that both FEADR and FEGA payments significantly influence these regional outcomes, though the effects vary depending on the specific economic or environmental indicator examined. The findings reveal that while FEADR payments positively impact rural employment, agricultural income, and renewable energy production, they are less effective in addressing poverty reduction and productivity enhancement. Conversely, FEGA payments exhibit a stronger influence on agricultural productivity and income, but have mixed effects on environmental sustainability. This study highlights significant regional disparities, suggesting that the allocation of CAP funds is uneven in its impact across regions. The implications for policymakers are clear: a more tailored approach is required to enhance the effectiveness of CAP funds in meeting diverse regional needs, particularly in promoting economic development while minimizing environmental harm. This study also emphasizes the need for further research to explore alternative policy mechanisms and innovative agricultural practices that can bridge the gaps identified in the current CAP framework. Limitations of this study include data availability and the inherent complexity of agricultural systems, which may affect the generalizability of the results across different EU member states.

Program UE dla zdrowia w europejskiej debacie parlamentarnej

EU HEALTH PROGRAMME IN THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENTARY DEBATEThe weakness of the response to the pandemic that was visible in many EU Member States, especially in the first period of the crisis, resulted in increased expectations for action at the European level. This was reflected in the EU4Health programme prepared in the same period. The analysis carried out in this article concerns parliamentary debates on the new EU health program and, indirectly, discussions on the further direction of changes in European health policy. The author put forward two hypotheses: 1. In the parliamentary debate on the EU health programme, positive opinions (regardless of party differences) towards the proposed actions, resulting from the experience of the pandemic crisis, will prevail. 2. The analysed debate will highlight differences regarding the further deepening of the integration process in the area of health – supporters of deepening integration (‘towards a real health union’) versus supporters of cooperation based on the current state-centric approach to health in the EU. As the analysis of the strategy and speeches during the plenary debates shows, the pandemic context has become an important point of reference for these activities. It allows us to confirm the hypothesis indicating the dominance of MEPs’ positive assessment of the solutions proposed by the strategies. The second hypothesis was also confirmed. The analysed speeches presented varied assessments of further integration leading to the creation of the European Health Union. Right-wing parties emphasised the need to maintain the status quo in the field of health (health policy in the hands of the state). MEPs from the EPP, S&D and Renew Europe presented a position more open to change. Taking into account that member states are responsible for health policy and for any changes in this area (specific treaty changes), the results of the debate should be treated as a presentation of political possibilities rather than a forecast of actions for the near future.

Instrumentalizacja migrantów jako forma destabilizacji bezpieczeństwa na wschodniej granicy zewnętrznej UE w kontekście wojny w Ukrainie

INSTRUMENTALISATION OF MIGRANTS AS A FORM OF SECURITY DESTABILIZATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE WAR IN UKRAINE The instrumentalization of migrants is a relatively recent phenomenon occuring at the EU’s eastern external border with Belarus. Its objective is to use migration flows as a tool in Russia’s hybrid warfare strategy aimed at destabilizing EU member states. The aim of this article is to examine the instrumentalisation of migrants as a form of security destabilization at the EU’s eastern external border in the context of the ongoing war in Ukraine. The war in Ukraine is one of the factors that have directly influenced the instrumentalization of migrants along the border with Belarus. This relationship, although appearing non-obvious at first glance, demonstrates no less than several factors indicative of the interdependence of the two processes. Firstly, it should be understood within the broader objective of instrumentalisation, which seeks to destabilize the European Union. Undoubtedly, one of the objectives of the Russian aggression against Ukraine is to destabilize the EU’s security.

Analysis of the Adaptation of the Belt and Road Initiative in the European Union: A Perspective Based on Multilateral Cooperation, Sociocultural and Sustainable Development

As the center of gravity of the global economy gradually shifts to Asia, China has strengthened its influence in the international economic system through the Belt and Road Initiative. As an important pole of the global economy, how to maintain the competitiveness of the EU in the new situation has become an important issue. There are significant differences between EU member states in terms of their level of economic development, foreign policies and attitudes towards China. This diversity makes it more difficult for the EU to coordinate its reaction to the Belt and Road Initiative. This complicates the EU's efforts to coordinate its reaction to the Initiative. As a result, this study investigates multilateral cooperation, socio-cultural, and sustainable development viewpoints, concluding that the EU must improve collaboration, maximize internal coordination, and adhere to the goal of sustainable development. The paper also discusses the major economic issues arising from the policy coordination of EU member states to adapt to the Belt and Road Initiative and the solutions required for these challenges.

ROLE OF STATE IN DEVELOPING MEDIATION – IN EU AND UKRAINE (A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE)

Ukraine’s status as a candidate country and the start of negotiations on accession to the European Union require a comparative analysis and harmonization of Ukrainian legislation with the legislation of other EU Member States and European legislation. One of the areas of comparative jurisprudence is the development of mediation as a legal institution, including the state policy of legislative regulation of the mediation institution. This development has attracted the attention and support of the EU and the Council of Europe, as European democratic standards require cooperation between the state and citizens or individuals. However, the need for a more cohesive and unified approach to mediation across the EU remains crucial, as highlighted by De Palo & Trevor (2012) , who argue that such harmonization would strengthen the effectiveness and accessibility of mediation services. The purpose of this article is, first, to compare the role of the state in the development of mediation in the EU and Ukraine. The state of research and literature on this topic in the EU and Ukraine is not sufficiently systematic, so a comparative analysis of this topic is relevant. In terms of methodology, the paper applies logical and linguistic methods. Still, some conclusions are based both on statistical data and on the observations of the participants, in particular, on their own mediation practice. Despite the more active role of the state in the development of mediation in the EU, this process cannot be called a ‘success story’. To a certain extent, we can observe similarities between the EU and Ukraine regarding successes, challenges, and the state’s role as one of the actors promoting the development of mediation.

A semantic-pragmatic approach to president Maia Sandu’s speech in the context of the Republic of Moldova’s accession to the European Union

The article explores the semantic-pragmatic approach to President Maia Sandu’s discourse within the context of Moldova’s aspiration to join the European Union. President Sandu, addressing the Parliament, strategically utilizes linguistic phenomena to convey a compelling vision for Moldova’s future integration into the EU by 2030. The discourse critically evaluates past political choices, dismissing options like the Commonwealth of Independent States and Customs Union as unsuccessful paths. The President uses negative forms and expressions to distance Moldova from previous political deceit and corruption, emphasizing the need for a new direction. The semantic elements in the discourse reveal a clear commitment to European integration, citing support from EU member states as a crucial factor. Pragmatic strategies, such as modality and rhetorical questions, have been used to emphasize the urgency and necessity of the chosen path. The discourse encourages political unity, urging support for EU accession over narrow interests. The analysis examines how semantics and pragmatics are strategically blended to construct a persuasive narrative that advocates for a European future for Moldova, fostering unity and dissociating from a troubled past. This study provides insights into the linguistic means used in President Maia Sandu’s discourse, illustrating the effectiveness of a semantic-pragmatic approach in building a positive perspective on Moldova’s accession to the European Union

Corrigendum to “Implementing the EU MSP Directive: Current status and lessons learned in 22 EU Member States” [Mar. Policy 171 (2025) 106425]

Corrigendum to “Implementing the EU MSP Directive: Current status and lessons learned in 22 EU Member States” [Mar. Policy 171 (2025) 106425]

Artificial intelligence and public governance models in socioeconomic welfare: some insights from Slovenia

This paper investigates the adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) in public governance and its impact on socioeconomic welfare, focusing on Slovenian Social Work Centres (SWCs). The objectives are to assess how AI applications align with governance models such as (Neo)Weberian Bureaucracy, New Public Management (NPM), and Good Governance, and to evaluate their effectiveness in promoting socioeconomic welfare. Furthermore, the study aims to identify opportunities and risks associated with AI in public governance and to provide policy recommendations for the ethical and effective integration of AI. A mixed-methods approach is adopted, comprising a comprehensive literature review to develop a theoretical framework, a cross-tabulation analysis of the European Commission's dataset of 686 AI use cases in 27 EU Member States, and a case study of AI implementation in Slovenian SWCs. This includes the analysis of administrative data from 2018–2022 on the e-Welfare platform and analysis of reports from Slovenian oversight bodies such as the Court of Audit, the Administrative Inspection, and the Human Rights Ombudsman. The results show that AI significantly improves administrative efficiency, particularly in the areas of resource management, cost-effectiveness, and service quality, which closely align with NPM principles. However, challenges remain in terms of transparency and accountability, as AI systems are often not transparent, making oversight difficult and jeopardising public trust, especially in the area of social welfare. The study concludes that while AI has significant potential to improve public governance, appropriate regulation and human oversight are essential to mitigate risks and ensure compliance with governance principles. The study provides valuable insights into the role of AI in administrative efficiency and is therefore relevant to policymakers, public officials, and researchers aiming to leverage AI's benefits while ensuring ethical governance and equitable socioeconomic outcomes.

Collective Actions and the Digital Markets Act: A Bird Without Wings

This paper comprehensively analyses collective actions for Digital Markets Act (DMA) violations. The paper first builds on the preliminary objectives for collective actions for DMA violations, including the overall role of private actors in DMA enforcement and the deficits of individual private enforcement. It will analyze why the DMA is particularly prone to collective enforcement. Second, the paper assesses the legal landscape of the DMA for collective actions. On one hand, the paper focuses on collective actions for consumers (in their capacity as end users) under the Representative Actions Directive and its transposition in the EU Member States. On the other hand, the paper will elaborate on other means of collective action, with a focus on collective actions for SMEs and other groups of business users under the DMA, including specific instruments, such as the UCP Directive, the P2B Regulation, or the GDPR, or options based on the effet utile principle, such as the assignment model.

Impact of National Gross Public Debt on COVID-19 Fatality Rates: A Study of European Countries

This study investigates the correlation between high national debt, healthcare spending, and COVID-19 mortality rates across European countries. The hypothesis is that excessive public debt undermines healthcare and socioeconomic systems, increasing vulnerability to crises like the pandemic. Findings support this theory. Countries with lower COVID-19 death rates exhibited lower debt levels and higher per capita healthcare spending compared to those with higher mortality rates. Despite increased debt burdens, countries with higher fatality rates struggled to boost healthcare expenditures, potentially due to austerity measures imposed by the European Union. The Methods section indicates that this study analyzed data from 27 EU member states, examining healthcare and economic indicators from 2009 and 2019 to evaluate their influence on COVID-19 mortality rates. Using descriptive statistics, a t-test, and a two-stage least squares (2SLS) regression model, the study compared pre-pandemic trends in healthcare spending and public debt, aiming to assess the impact of high government debt on healthcare systems' crisis response capacity. The research demonstrates a strong association between increased health spending and reduced COVID-19 mortality rates, even when accounting for debt levels. These results highlight the detrimental impact of high public debt on healthcare systems and their ability to respond effectively to public health emergencies. The study underscores the need to address public debt to build more resilient healthcare infrastructures.