EU Institutions Research Articles

(Re)conceptualization Of The Term Cybersecurity In The European Union’s Security Policy

The term Cybersecurity has been in use for a while now. Yet, the current level of technological development of society intensifies its usage. The largest number of requests to change the traditional security agenda goes in the direction of expanding the research of security science in the sector of cybersecurity. A precondition for something like that is the removal of existing unclarities about the theoretical designation and practical value of the concept. That certainly asks for detailed scientific research. In the last decade, a tendency of emphasizing the concept of cybersecurity in the security policy of the European Union has been noted. It mostly follows its implementation in various strategic documents, but also its operationalization and institutionalization within the EU and its activities. Therefore, the topic of this essay is the (re)conceptualization of the term Cybersecurity in the security policy of the EU. The aim is to determine the term and clarify and demystify the concept of cybersecurity as much as possible. Another aim is to look into how the EU, as a specific supranational organization, approaches this concept through its general and special strategic documents, i.e., its entire security agenda. The methodology of this essay is the overview of the existing scientific and expert literature, an analysis of the EU’s strategic and normative framework, as well as documents and reports of the EU institutions. The conclusion should be that the EU recognizes the potential and importance of the concept of cybersecurity within its security policy. However, it is necessary to keep the continuity in work on the definition and operationalization of the concept of cybersecurity, so it would not encompass too extensive range.

The cross-border crime and security of the movement of goods in the European Union – the role of the Border Guard of the Republic of Poland

Issues related to broadly understood border security are discussed by the EU institutions and Member States, as well as attracting interest from various academic communities. The discussion has multiple dimensions. Regarding the cross-border movement of goods, the role of the security guardian is most frequently attributed to customs authorities, often without acknowledging the importance of another border service, i.e. the border guard. Therefore, the article’s aim is to analyse the role of the Border Guard of the Republic of Poland in the process of ensuring the security of the cross-border movement of goods in the European Union and actions to combat cross-border economic crime in the context of movement of people. This article is divided in introduction, two parts presenting the research results, and conclusions. The first part describes the essence of security and threats in the cross-border movement of goods in the context of cross-border movement of people, the second one refers to the role of the Border Guard of the Republic of Poland as the guardian of the security of the European Union’s external border. The conclusion presents recommendations for maintaining a high level of protection and border surveillance in the cross-border movement of goods. This article is theoretical, with elements of comparative analysis.

Influence of the European Commission on Innovation Development During the Execution of Merger Control

Problem setting. The research focuses on examining the nature of European Commission’s evaluation practices, concerning the merger agreements, that are conducted by this body on the basis of the EU Merger Regulation. The modern dimension of informational society has led to revolutionary changes in Commission’s policy regarding mergers. The European dimension criteria and quantitative evaluations of an undertaking are the main but not the only tools, provided by the Regulation 139/2004, that define the scope of measures, available to the Commission during the investigation. The problem is, that the modern startups progression pattern leads to the alteration of the nature of the market, where the nonessential undertakings can become extremely essential in a dramatically short period of time. This factors have become an incentive to the European Commission to conduct research not only by taking the past and the present factors into consideration, but also using various methods to evaluate the future outcome of the merger with a company, that falls under the Commission’s jurisdiction, which leads to appearance of serious concerns about the integrity of the subsidiarity principle. Analysis of recent researches and publications. The role of the Commission’s evaluation procedure in the merger agreements between the innovative subjects has been researched by the following scientists: Oskar Törngren, Joseph Bromfield, Matthew Olczak, Thomas Buettner, Giulio Federico, Szabolcs Lorincz, Kyriakos Fountoukakos, Dafni Katrana, Agathe Célarié, Massimo Motta, Martin Peitz. The issue in question has also been duly revised and studied by the lawyers and responsible staff of the European Commission. Target of the research is to study a multidimensional nature of merger evaluation, conducted by the EU Commission towards the deals between the undertakings, that contain innovation. Article’s main body. The main instrument, possessed by the Commission and designed to evaluate a substantial threat of a merger to trade via the EU remains the significant impediment of effective competition (SIEC) test, which outlines, that the merger agreement must maintain the balance between competition hindrance and possible benefits and positive commercial outcomes of the deal. In order to make a distinction between lawful and unlawful agreements, the Commission uses a set of criterions and techniques to make sure that the current and the future position of the parties on a relative market will not become object to abuse of the parties. The criterions are not excessive and may encompass both legal and non-legal approaches. The Commission investigates how the position of the parties, their market share, the innovative nature of their product or the difficulty of access to the relevant market can affect the trade within the Internal Market. One of the most recent techniques, which is being used by the Commission as a response to the emerging power of innovative international corporate structures is the loss of innovation criteria. The European Commission insists on the position, that so-called «acquisition killing» is illegal within the EU competition law framework and has conducted a number of landmark investigations, where the conclusion has been made, that the innovative nature of some companies does not allow them to be a subject of merger because of the objective misgiving about the loss of the innovative product as a result of the merger, which may lead to the stoppage of a valuable research. The fact that most of the «acquisition killings» do not fit neither into the national nor the supranational jurisdiction is continuing to be a huge challenge for the Commission to tackle. Nevertheless, the recent practice alterations, concerning the use of the referral procedure, set in art.22 of the EU Merger Regulation allows the Commission to create at least a temporary decision of the problem by giving the Member States an incentive of voluntary application submission in case when the national competition authorities can’t cope with the issue newly set. Conclusions and prospects for the development. It’s worth noting, that the referral procedure use is neither a complete, nor a permanent decision of the problem. However, these steps from the Commission allow us to think that the new wave of integration concerning competition is still awaiting the EU and its Members. The Commission’s practice is a step forward to entering the new era of information economics, where the cooperative activities and mutual strategies of the national governments and the EU institutions are crucial for maintaining the sustainable development principle without hindering subsidiarity.

Effective judicial protection: enforcement, judicial federalism and the politics of EU law

AbstractThe general principle of effective judicial protection grants the right to obtain a remedy in the fields covered by EU law and is an essential component of the EU enforcement toolkit. Recent jurisprudential developments have complexified the role of this principle, by transforming it into a vehicle for the enforcement of the rule of law in the EU. As a result, the principle of effective judicial protection appears as the factotum of the EU legal system: it acts as a fundamental right and is an expression of the EU rule of law; furthermore, it is a legal basis to influence national fundamental rights and to impose procedural obligations on the EU institutions. This overview Article offers a novel account of the evolution of this principle in the EU legal landscape. First, it reflects on the trajectory of this evolving principle in the EU case law and in the academic discourse. Second, it identifies conceptual issues surrounding the role of effective judicial protection in the EU legal order in the light of the latest jurisprudential developments.

Mainstreaming heritages: abstract heritage values as strategic resources in EU external relations

ABSTRACT Cultural heritage has continually been employed as a strategic resource in EU external relations and to foster cohesion between member states and pre-accession countries. In these contexts, authorized and hegemonic versions of European and national heritage have been favoured to use culture as ‘soft power.’ While diversity has been an integral part of European heritage conceptions, it is limited in scope and scale and entails exclusions against perceived foreign or peripheral aspects. As participation and community involvement gain more prominent roles in current heritage developments (e.g. UNESCO, ICH, and the Council of Europe’s Faro convention), marginalized or hybrid elements of heritage and abstract values attached to cultural heritage become more important. Based on comparative policy and document analyses of EU policy programs, the paper asks how, as part of such processes, one can observe an emphasis on value-based approaches to heritage as part of EU external relations rather than on specific contents of cultural heritage. The paper examines how EU institutions aim to integrate dissonant heritages and linkages to non-European aspects into authorized forms of heritage by employing a value-based perception of cultural heritage.

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL DIMENSIONS OF COOPERATION OF TERRITORIAL COMMUNITIES IN UKRAINE

The author has analyzed the political and legal conditions of realization of cooperation between communities: inner (between territorial communities) as well as international (between regions and cities abroad). It was established that the effect of the Law of Ukraine «On Cooperation of Territorial Communities» is measured by almost 900 agreements on such cooperation. Subject analysis of these documents allowed to single out the directions of cooperation of communities – service, communal, infrastructural and energy effective ones. The obstacles which hinder such cooperation are conditioned by the insufficient competency level of local governmental officials, significant disproportion of the budgets of territorial communities, problems of correlation of the influence of local public authorities and local self-government bodies at the level of district and region, insufficient level of development of local initiatives and so on. It is stated that the way out of the controversial situations should be improvement of legislation, objective court decisions, timely qualified mediation of conflicts, contractual solution of problems. It is appealed to the legally regulated authority of local self-government bodies to conduct international activities. It is indicated that such opportunities are regulated by separate agreements between Ukraine and other countries which began to be concluded in the early 1990-ies. It is mainly about cross-border collaboration and cooperation between twin cities. In the context of European integration of Ukraine the angle of attention of the regions is focused on the issues of attracting foreign investments, donor assistance, grants from EU institutions and joint projects with foreign partners. It is proved that the factor of russian military aggression has led to the reorientation of the direction of international cooperation of communities from cultural, educational, informational and environmental to humanitarian and infrastructural, which are completely subordinated to the needs of wartime.

Constitutional identity as a normative constitutional concept

AbstractAlthough constitutional identity is nowadays invoked by European states primarily against the extension of the powers of the EU institutions, it can also be understood as a substantive concept of national constitutional law. This article deals with constitutional identity as a normative constitutional concept. In this respect, the problem is the same as that which arises in the relationship between EU law and domestic law: namely, its fundamental indeterminacy and the possible arbitrariness of its application. The author argues that, therefore, constitutional identity can only be plausibly invoked if satisfactory answers can be given to the questions of exactly whose identity it is, what its source is, who and how its content may define, and what the constitutional function of this category is. The second part of the study examines the Hungarian constitutional identity according to this analytical framework, and concludes that, although its subject is the Fundamental Law, its definition, content and constitutional function are unclear and contradictory. Consequently, the current concept of constitutional identity in Hungary raises a number of problems for which no plausible answers have yet been found, and it is highly doubtful whether the doctrinal and practical difficulties related to it can be resolved at all.

Influence of the European Commission on Innovation Development During the Execution of Merger Control

Problem setting. The research focuses on examining the nature of European Commission’s evaluation practices, concerning the merger agreements, that are conducted by this body on the basis of the EU Merger Regulation. The modern dimension of informational society has led to revolutionary changes in Commission’s policy regarding mergers. The European dimension criteria and quantitative evaluations of an undertaking are the main but not the only tools, provided by the Regulation 139/2004, that define the scope of measures, available to the Commission during the investigation. The problem is, that the modern startups progression pattern leads to the alteration of the nature of the market, where the nonessential undertakings can become extremely essential in a dramatically short period of time. This factors have become an incentive to the European Commission to conduct research not only by taking the past and the present factors into consideration, but also using various methods to evaluate the future outcome of the merger with a company, that falls under the Commission’s jurisdiction, which leads to appearance of serious concerns about the integrity of the subsidiarity principle. Analysis of recent researches and publications. The role of the Commission’s evaluation procedure in the merger agreements between the innovative subjects has been researched by the following scientists: Oskar Törngren, Joseph Bromfield, Matthew Olczak, Thomas Buettner, Giulio Federico, Szabolcs Lorincz, Kyriakos Fountoukakos, Dafni Katrana, Agathe Célarié, Massimo Motta, Martin Peitz. The issue in question has also been duly revised and studied by the lawyers and responsible staff of the European Commission. Target of the research is to study a multidimensional nature of merger evaluation, conducted by the EU Commission towards the deals between the undertakings, that contain innovation. Article’s main body. The main instrument, possessed by the Commission and designed to evaluate a substantial threat of a merger to trade via the EU remains the significant impediment of effective competition (SIEC) test, which outlines, that the merger agreement must maintain the balance between competition hindrance and possible benefits and positive commercial outcomes of the deal. In order to make a distinction between lawful and unlawful agreements, the Commission uses a set of criterions and techniques to make sure that the current and the future position of the parties on a relative market will not become object to abuse of the parties. The criterions are not excessive and may encompass both legal and non-legal approaches. The Commission investigates how the position of the parties, their market share, the innovative nature of their product or the difficulty of access to the relevant market can affect the trade within the Internal Market. One of the most recent techniques, which is being used by the Commission as a response to the emerging power of innovative international corporate structures is the loss of innovation criteria. The European Commission insists on the position, that so-called «acquisition killing» is illegal within the EU competition law framework and has conducted a number of landmark investigations, where the conclusion has been made, that the innovative nature of some companies does not allow them to be a subject of merger because of the objective misgiving about the loss of the innovative product as a result of the merger, which may lead to the stoppage of a valuable research. The fact that most of the «acquisition killings» do not fit neither into the national nor the supranational jurisdiction is continuing to be a huge challenge for the Commission to tackle. Nevertheless, the recent practice alterations, concerning the use of the referral procedure, set in art.22 of the EU Merger Regulation allows the Commission to create at least a temporary decision of the problem by giving the Member States an incentive of voluntary application submission in case when the national competition authorities can’t cope with the issue newly set. Conclusions and prospects for the development. It’s worth noting, that the referral procedure use is neither a complete, nor a permanent decision of the problem. However, these steps from the Commission allow us to think that the new wave of integration concerning competition is still awaiting the EU and its Members. The Commission’s practice is a step forward to entering the new era of information economics, where the cooperative activities and mutual strategies of the national governments and the EU institutions are crucial for maintaining the sustainable development principle without hindering subsidiarity.

The Use of Judicial Precedent as a Form of Activism by the Court of Justice: Strengthening the Union’s Powers to Protect the Rule of Law

Abstract The article analyses the strategic use of the reference to its caselaw by the Court of Justice as a tool to innovate EU law. It compares such use in two areas of EU law, both recently at the heart of a number of important cases: on the one hand, the European Arrest Warrant (eaw), particularly the balance between national judges’ powers to refuse the execution of the eaw and the principle of mutual trust; on the other, the recent developments in the caselaw concerning judicial independence in the context of the worsening rule of law backsliding in Poland. It shows that, while in both cases the Court makes consistently relies upon its ‘settled caselaw’, it does so in different ways. Specifically, in the case of judicial independence, the Court refers to its previous caselaw to expand and consolidate the power of EU institutions vis-à-vis Member States’ national autonomy.

Negotiation Process as an Integral Part of Romania’s Integration into the EU

The author of the article analyzes European Union-Romania’s membership negotiations, that began on February 15, 2000 and exposes their basic problems. The author traced the dynamics of the negotiation process on the basis of EU and Romania documents and proved that the main purpose of negotiations was to comprehensively achieve Copenhagen criteria by Romania. The cooperation between EU and Romania developed on the basis of the provisions of the European Agreement within the framework of its institutions. The negotiation process of Romania’s accession to the European Union took place under the established procedure and was practically indistingui-shable from the negotiations of other CEE countries. It is substantiated that despite the real reforms, increasing Romania’s promotion in the process of preparation for EU membership and real assistance to the EU to intensify Romania preparation for membership in 2004, but in October 2002 the EU institutions agreed on Romania’s joining the EU after 2004. It was established that the intensification of Romania’s efforts to implement the criteria for admission and the adoption in February 2004 of the financial package for its accession contributed to the closure of the most difficult issues of negotiations in 2004.

Problematica tehnologiilor disruptive în contextul cooperării europene în domeniul apărării

"The development of disruptive technologies represents one of the main themes of the contemporary security agenda not only from a national perspective but also at the level of multinational cooperation. In this regard, the European cooperation carried out under the institutional auspices of the Common Security and Defence Policy has gradually addressed the impact of disruptive technologies on the way of structuring the EU’s response to contemporary security challenges. The approach to this subject has gradually evolved towards profiling a distinct typology at the level of which the specific character also derives from the particular parameters of the mode of interaction between the EU institutions. Equally, the specific nature of the European approach also concerns the way of financing the process of developing capabilities of this type, including in terms of complementing the national effort through opportunities offered by the EU budget. From this perspective, it can be concluded that the issue of disruptive technologies will become more and more visible on the European cooperation agenda, including in terms of the priorities advanced through the Strategic Compass as well as at the level of practical initiatives launched in the CSDP context, as is the case with PESCO and EDF."

Disruptive Technologies in the Context of European Defence Cooperation

"The development of disruptive technologies represents one of the main themes of the contemporary security agenda not only from a national perspective but also at the level of multinational cooperation. In this regard, the European cooperation carried out under the institutional auspices of the Common Security and Defence Policy has gradually addressed the impact of disruptive technologies on the way of structuring the EU’s response to contemporary security challenges. The approach to this subject has gradually evolved towards profiling a distinct typology at the level of which the specific character also derives from the particular parameters of the mode of interaction between the EU institutions. Equally, the specific nature of the European approach also concerns the way of financing the process of developing capabilities of this type, including in terms of complementing the national effort through opportunities offered by the EU budget. From this perspective, it can be concluded that the issue of disruptive technologies will become more and more visible on the European cooperation agenda, including in terms of the priorities advanced through the Strategic Compass as well as at the level of practical initiatives launched in the CSDP context, as is the case with PESCO and EDF."

Problematica tehnologiilor disruptive în contextul cooperării europene în domeniul apărării

"The development of disruptive technologies represents one of the main themes of the contemporary security agenda not only from a national perspective but also at the level of multinational cooperation. In this regard, the European cooperation carried out under the institutional auspices of the Common Security and Defence Policy has gradually addressed the impact of disruptive technologies on the way of structuring the EU’s response to contemporary security challenges. The approach to this subject has gradually evolved towards profiling a distinct typology at the level of which the specific character also derives from the particular parameters of the mode of interaction between the EU institutions. Equally, the specific nature of the European approach also concerns the way of financing the process of developing capabilities of this type, including in terms of complementing the national effort through opportunities offered by the EU budget. From this perspective, it can be concluded that the issue of disruptive technologies will become more and more visible on the European cooperation agenda, including in terms of the priorities advanced through the Strategic Compass as well as at the level of practical initiatives launched in the CSDP context, as is the case with PESCO and EDF."

UE Organizational Identity. From the Motto Veritate Concordia to Neo-bureaucratic Management

Abstract Objective: The concept of organizational identity appears mainly in the context of a symbolic-interpretive view of an organization’s functioning in its many dimensions. This article aims to analyze to what extent previous knowledge about the existence of an EU organizational identity is a distinct category in the context of neo-bureaucratic management. It seems particularly interesting to draw attention to the identity context in organizations operating under intercultural management conditions. Their character and disposition may be more complex than in the case of homogeneous organizations. For this reason, the European Union is asking itself questions about its identity in the context of cultural unification and policy issues, and management solutions related to the institution’s functioning at many levels. Therefore, it seems interesting to draw attention to these issues in light of the different contexts of influence. One is the neo-bureaucratic view of the EU institutions’ governance dimensions, which should be regarded as complex organizational identities. They are subject to the modern influence of management visions and benefit from intercultural management processes’ achievements. The EU’s supranational structure, influenced by bureaucratic organizational arrangements, speaking the language of diplomacy, and setting policy for the Member States, constitute a unique organizational identity globally, which is worth verifying through the prism of neo-bureaucratic influences and cultural conditions of European identity. Methodology: The article is based on a critical analysis of literature dealing with the sense of European Union organizational identity. Provided a theoretical background on orgzniataional identity in neo-bureaucratic management on a European level. Findings: In its institutional dimension, the European Union faces the dilemma regarding its own identity due to diplomatic disputes over cultivating indigenous cultures and diversity. It is, therefore, a rare phenomenon on the world stage of supranational institutions. Its procedural nature and purpose are also important to harmonize the Member States’ various policies. It is already possible to outline its unique organizational identity. However, it cannot be transferred to territorial and social land, as Europe cannot be a hybrid of cultures or unify its perspective in the face of historical pasts and ethnic representations. Value Added: Critical discourse on the theory of bureaucratic management and organizational identity. Presentation of the role of European Union identity in management process and giving the organization common values that solidify its form. Recommendations: Neo-bureaucratic management is an interesting phenomena to explore in cross-cultural discourses. There are several directions for analysis: forms of modern bureaucracy based on practices drawn from the experience of corporations; abuse of the power of supranational organisations; network management in international organizations.

Legal Methods for the Study of EU Institutional Practice

Methodological choices in the legal study of the role of EU institutions – The so-called doctrinal legal method is appropriate, provided that it includes the analysis of key elements of non-legal institutional practice – Simple distinction between the study of ‘law in the books’ and that of ‘law in action’ to be qualified – Doctrinal legal scholarship is meaningful only when it acknowledges and incorporates a certain amount of ‘law in action’

LOBBYING ACTIVITIES OF INTEREST GROUPS DURING THE EU MEMBERSHIP PROCESS OF TURKEY

In parallel to the devolution of authority from member nations to the EU, the lobbying actions of various entities towards EU institutions have expanded over time. A variety of organisations coordinates lobbying efforts on behalf of EU institutions. The aim of this research is to investigate the impact of a candidate country's interest groups' lobbying efforts by focusing on Turkey as a case.Due to the length of the EU membership process, which has exceeded 20 years, Turkey is regarded as an exceptional case. This study examines the lobbying actions of four economic and two political bodies in Turkey between 1999 and 2021, based on a typological description of two sorts of groupings. In terms of research method, a two-stage approach was adopted by using qualitative and quantitative tools together. In the first stage, written documents were analysed to determine the institutions’ general attitudes towards the EU accession process and the topics they focus on. The documents in question includes periodic activity reports, thematic reports, press releases, statements of institution representatives for non-governmental organizations and party programs, election manifestos, statements of party leaders or representatives, and parliamentary minutes for political parties. In addition, the news in the national media about the activities of the institutions was examined through an extensive media scan. Following this, in the second stage, semi-structured questionnaires were prepared for all institutions and answers were sought in in-depth interviews with EU representatives of the institutions examined, EU decision makers who are the addressees of the lobbying activities, and relevant experts on lobbying in the EU. According to the findings of the research, the study suggests that variations in Turkey-EU relations have a detrimental impact on the lobbying actions of these entities. However, the lobbying actions of the entities listed below are less influenced by these changes. These are the groups that focus on their particular field of operations at the technical level rather than the Turkish accession process and create deeper relationships with transnational umbrella organizations. The statistics imply that non-governmental organizations are more effective than political parties in EU lobbying actions.

Avrupa Birliği Temel Haklar Şartı’nın Avrupa Birliği Parlamentosu Konseyi ve Komisyonunun Faaliyetleri Üzerindeki Etkisi

Avrupa Birliği Temel Haklar Şartı’nın AB Antlaşmaları (AB Antlaşması ve ABİHA) ile aynı hukuki değere ulaşmasını sağlayan Lizbon Antlaşmasının yürürlüğe girmesinden bu yana on üç yıl ve Avrupa Birliği'nin üç büyük siyasi kurumu olan Parlamento, Konsey ve Komisyon tarafından 7 Aralık 2000'de Nice Avrupa Konseyi Zirvesinde bu Şart'ın ilk ilanından bu yana neredeyse yirmi iki yıl geçti. Bu süre içerisinde Temel Haklar Şartı içerisinde yer alan hakların AB'nin siyasi kurum ve organlarının uygulamalarında ne gibi etkiler doğurduğunun ortaya konulması ve analiz edilmesi önem arzetmektedir. Son yıllarda, Avrupa Parlamentosu, Konsey ve Avrupa Komisyonu, temel hak korumasını güçlendirmiş, AB mevzuatının ve politikalarının Şart'a tam olarak uymasını sağlamak için sağlam bir araç kutusu geliştirmişlerdir. AB vatandaşlarının haklarını etkin bir şekilde korumayı amaçlayan yasal bir araç olarak AB’nin en önemli üç kurumu tarafından Şart’ın nasıl uygulandığı ile bu süreçte Şart’ın fiilî etkisi ve kullanımı değerlendirilmiştir.

The European Commission and the COVID-19 pandemic: a pluri-institutional approach

ABSTRACT According to a widely held view, the European Council decides how the EU should respond in times of crisis, since the European Council alone has the authority to lead. Other institutions, meanwhile, adopt at best a secondary role. An alternative perspective has emerged, however, which contends, first, that the European Council’s influence on the EU's crisis response is variable and, second, that other EU institutions, in particular the European Commission, are able to shape EU action, including through interventions made independently of the European Council. This article builds on this alternative view to argue that the respective role played by the European Council and the European Commisson is contingent, first, on the policy area where a crisis strikes and second, on leadership or agency on the part of the Presidents of the two institutions. The dynamics of the EU’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic support this view. Acting on its powers in public health and other affected areas, and with Commission President Ursula von der Leyen taking a highly pro-active approach to outbreak of the virus, the Commission intervened early, framed the pandemic as a crisis, and set and then expanded the EU’s agenda. Although its decision-making role was important, the European Council largely followed the Commission's lead.

Digital Diplomacy in Russia–Europe Relations: Cross-Cultural Aspects

The development of information and communication technologies and the formation of the global information society give rise to the study of new directions in the evolution of diplomatic practice in the digital environment, including in the context of intercultural communication. The modern information revolution is characterized by the widespread and ever-growing use of social networks, blogs, wiki resources and other media platforms (labelled under the common term of Web 2.0 technologies). At the same time, the widespread use of Web 2.0 technologies and the increasing amount of time people all over the world spend there has a broad and profound impact on political and intercultural communication and diplomatic practice. A new phenomenon of digital diplomacy is gaining prominence among the foreign policy tools of states and international organizations. Digital diplomacy can be defined as the use of social networks and Web 2.0 technologies in public diplomacy and international interaction by states and international organizations to achieve foreign policy goals and reach foreign audiences. According to the traditional view of digital diplomacy, which has developed in the academic literature, and is reflected in the works of authors such as Manuel Castells and Joseph. Nye, it helps to strengthen network ties at the level of civil societies in different countries and thus reduces international conflicts. However, cultural differences and digital polarization can impede the potential of digital diplomacy. Today, almost all states and international organizations in the global arena are involved in the practice of digital diplomacy, and Russia is no exception. Russia actively participates in digital diplomacy by using social media and Web 2.0 tools as soft power instruments to introduce and explain foreign policy initiatives and reach foreign and domestic audiences, as stated in the 2016 Doctrine of Information Security of Russian Federation. For Russia’s foreign policy, relations with the EU countries and institutions are of particular importance, including in the digital sphere. However, even though both Russia and the EU countries make extensive use of digital diplomacy tools, the practice of horizontal network interaction mediated by digital technologies does not contribute to strengthening trust between countries and reducing conflicts. The authors consider incidents and allegations in the sphere of digital interaction and, based on the theory of digital polarization, conclude that the use of digital tools in horizontal interactions within digital diplomacy exacerbates intercultural differences between countries and increases conflict instead of improving mutual understanding.

The causes of the rise of Euroscepticism: a survey of Serbian citizens in 2020

ABSTRACT The recent spread of Euroscepticism has largely been limited to criticism of the actions, inefficiencies, or credibility of EU institutions, while the issue of leaving or not joining the EU is still out of focus for the vast majority of the European population. With the exception of the United Kingdom, which withdrew from the EU, Serbia is the only country where the majority of the population does not want to join the bloc. This paper is dedicated to researching the causes of this phenomenon and measuring their impact on the current additional increase in resistance to the EU among the population of Serbia. This paper presents the results of a survey organised by the authors in Serbia in 2020. MANOVA and the Generalised Linear Model (GLM) were used to analyse the impact of different demographic and socio-economic characteristics, as well as the influence of the national attachment of respondents to their attitude towards EU membership. The results showed that Euroscepticism was on the rise due to a weakening expectation of economic benefits of EU membership and a strengthening of national attachment, including concerns over the loss of national sovereignty, under increased EU pressure on Serbia to give up disputed Kosovo territories.