EU Candidate Countries Research Articles

External Democracy Promotion in Time of Democratic Crisis: Linkage, Leverage, and Domestic Actors’ Diversionary Behaviours

Since the 1990s, the literature on External Democracy Promotion (EDP) expanded exponentially. Despite widely supported conclusions on EDP (in)effectiveness in fostering democratization and preventing democratic backsliding are still lacking, the literature has generated sophisticated explanations of these processes. Among them, Levitsky and Way’s (L&W’s) linkage and leverage theory stands out as one of the most influential. According to Tolstrup, however, their underestimation of domestic agency constitutes a crucial lacuna, which he proposes to fill through the concept of “Gatekeeping Elite” that underlines a significant impact of local actors on the linkage dimension and, consequently, on EDP (in)effectiveness. I believe that Tolstrup’s intuition can be further developed, expanding even more the explanatory power of L&W’s theory. I claim that domestic actors may exert a crucial influence also on the leverage dimension, thanks to “diversionary behaviours” that local elites may use to change external actors’ interests and preferences, persuading them to limit their democratizing pressures and thus reduce their own vulnerability to EDP processes. To assess the plausibility of this claim, I perform a congruence analysis on the recent and crucial case of autocratization in Serbia (EU candidate country), which is not fully explained by the aforementioned models.

What is the health-related burden of EU-Candidate Countries? A snapshot of public health indicators

Abstract Background Various studies have shown the ebb of the political spectrum when determining entry into the European Union. The objective of this study was to determine the key differences between the European Union (EU) and the current EU-candidate countries through the lens of the financial burden of the public healthcare system. Methods The most complete and available EUROSTAT data describing health-related burden (13 indicators) for current EU- candidate countries (Serbia, Turkey, the Republic of North Macedonia and Montenegro) were evaluated and compared. Results Total health expenditures (Purchasing Parity Power) per capita in EU candidate countries is almost one-third of that in the EU. General government health expenditure for all four countries was below the EU average with Montenegro spending the highest and North Macedonia spending the least. Turkey, with a significantly higher gross domestic product (GDP), allocated the smallest percentage of its GDP on health (4.31%), while Serbia the highest percentage (8.55%), both being below the EU average (10%). The private health expenditure for all of the countries was higher than the EU average, with Serbia's proportion being double that of the EU average. Assessing the burden of disease for these countries, Serbia has the highest disability-adjusted life years (DALY) rate per 100,000 (25,468.38), while the average DALY rate of the other three countries was 23,656.33 and the EU average was 16,390. Turkey and North Macedonia tying for the highest infant mortality rate, three times the EU average. Of the candidate countries, Serbia contains the highest density of physicians and nurses and Turkey, the lowest. Conclusions The process of entry to the EU is a varied experience for each country since attaining benchmark standards affects the time needed to achieve them. This study on a selected number of public health indicators contributes to the evidence on the current health-related burden of EU-candidate countries. Key messages All EU candidate countries have a much higher burden of disease and a much lower health workforce and health expenditure than the EU average. The challenge for countries in the accession process is to reach a level of quality and achievement in health care in the EU.

Higher Education as a Determinant of the Competitiveness and Sustainable Development of an Economy

The aim of this paper is to examine the interdependence between higher education on the one hand and the competitiveness of the economy and sustainable development on the other hand. To examine the mentioned interdependence, we used a sample that includes EU member states and candidate countries. The paper applies correlation and regression analysis of comparative data sections. The research findings indicate a strong correlation between higher education on the one hand and the competitiveness of the economy and sustainable development on the other. The results obtained by research can serve as a “global benchmark” of future public policy in the field of higher education.

Rapid risk assessment from ECDC: Resurgence of reported cases of COVID-19 in the EU/EEA, the UK and EU candidate and potential candidate countries.

Rapid risk assessment from ECDC: Resurgence of reported cases of COVID-19 in the EU/EEA, the UK and EU candidate and potential candidate countries.

A comparison of development assistance policies: Turkey and the European Union in sectoral and humanitarian aid

ABSTRACT In recent years, Turkey has allocated humanitarian aid that surpasses much richer economies, including the EU. This article provides a thorough look into the patterns of divergence, complementarity and cooperation opportunities that emerged between Turkey and the EU, on sectoral aid, allocated between 2005 and 2017. The empirical analysis demonstrates whether foreign aid sectors that Turkey is active in could lead to further cooperation with the EU. These possible avenues of cooperation matter precisely because Turkey’s potential role to contribute to the global development agenda, as an emerging donor. Second, Turkish foreign aid has the potential to contribute to the EU’s collective interests in foreign policy, since Turkey is still an EU candidate country. This article aims to contribute to the literature on emerging donors using the Turkish case as an illustration of the differences among donors, as well as foreign aid literature within the contours of European integration.

Menadžerska analiza mogućnosti upravljanja procesom privatizacije

The transformation of ownership, often reminiscent of the earlier historical period of the original accumulation of capital, is an opportunity for the rapid enrichment of those who had a monopoly in former socialist societies. At the same time, the redistribution of national wealth encourages changes in the relationship of forces in the social structure of power, which makes privatization the scene of sharp conflicts of interest with controversial consequences for the entire society. Weak institutions of the rule of law cannot limit the aspirations of different interest groups to gain economic power, so privatization is an area of great economic risk. That is why the greatest attention of both the public and specialized non-governmental organizations in the EU candidate countries is devoted to monitoring the privatization process. The paper aims to point out the basic features of the privatization process in Serbia. In this regard, we have analyzed the cause and effect relationships of the economic phenomena associated with this process, that is, we have pointed out the fact that certain legal provisions also contribute to the spread of abuses in this area. The importance of transparency in the privatization process, as an important precondition for economic growth and democratic transformation, was particularly emphasized.

Brexit Süreci ve AB ile İngiltere’nin Geleceği İçin Olası Modeller

The Brexit or Brexit crisis is the same term for the UK exit beginner project of the European Union (known as the code name for the meaning as British exit from the European Union). As is known, this process was started officially started via following the referendum of 23th June in 2016 which presented the victory of the supporters who had been wishing to leave the EU at the near value as %52. Nowadays, the exist process gained a different meaning, hence it refers today to realizing the withdrawal agreements negotiated with the long withdrawal procedure started on 29th March in 2017. The new Brexit agreement was scheduled to be voted as a motion at the extraordinary session of the House of Commons on 14TH October in 2019, but upon the adoption of the proposed amendment by Oliver Letwin, the moderate Conservative MP of the ruling Conservative Party, the government withdrew the motion. Letwin's amendment proposal aims to prevent Britain from "accidentally" leaving the EU unintentionally before the Brexit agreement is enacted. In this paper the possible process of Brexit will be discussed, and its effects on UK’s foreign policy and available EU member and candidate countries are going to be paid attention.

Cost efficiency and risk as determinants of market share in banking: Evidence from the old and new eu member and candidate countries

In this study we investigate how cost efficiency and risk affect market share in European banking industry. Our analysis is motivated by the well-known efficiency hypothesis and structure-conduct-performance theory. We hypothesize that improved efficiency and enhanced riskiness of a bank should be related to an increase in its market share. Therefore, in contrast to other studies, we include risk as a determinant of market share. In the study we use annual data for 36 European countries’ banks for the time span from 2007 to 2015. The results reveal that risk and efficiency are positively associated with market share of assets, loans and deposits. Additionally, we find that banks in transition countries were less successful in transposing their cost efficiency advantages into market share gains than banks in European developed countries. The empirical model is estimated by using the GMM method in order to account for dynamic nature of investigated components and to mitigate the endogeneity problem.

Determinants of Income Inequality in EU Candidate Countries: A Panel Analysis

Abstract Despite increasing income per capita, the EU candidate and potential candidate countries remain confronted with high levels of income inequality. The purpose of our paper is to identify the main determinants of income inequality among the EU candidate countries. In addition to macroeconomic factors, we also analyze the impact of demographic variables to provide more reliable estimates. Using panel data analysis with fixed effects in the period 2005-2017 for three EU candidate countries (North Macedonia, Serbia and Turkey) we find that the unemployment rate, the level of economic development and the investment rate are the main determinants whose increase leads to a bigger income differentiation in the analyzed countries. The government indebtedness has also a statistically significant, but a negative impact on income inequality. The other two macroeconomic variables in the model – the terms of trade and inflation are statistically insignificant. Among the demographic factors, population growth and education significantly affect income inequality among the EU candidate countries. The obtained results suggest that a sustainable economic growth combined with active measures in the labor market and the improvement of education level of the population could lead to more equal income distribution.

Annual Report of the Scientific Network on BSE‐TSE 2019

The EFSA Scientific Network on bovine spongiform encephalopathies and other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (BSE-TSE) held its 14th meeting on 14-15 October 2019 in Parma. The meeting served as an opportunity to exchange scientific information on BSE-TSE related issues among EU Member States, countries from the European Free Trade Association, EU candidate countries, EFSA, the European Commission and ad hoc participants. In this occasion, ad hoc representation included the World Animal Health Organisation (OIE). The topics discussed included: updates on the situation of Chronic Wasting Disease in Norway, Sweden and Finland; the implementation of national breeding programmes for resistance to classical scrapie in small ruminants; BSE-related research projects; an update on the situation of camel prion disease in North Africa. Recent and ongoing EFSA, OIE and EC activities on TSE were presented, as well as the preliminary results of the 2018 EU TSE summary report. EU candidate countries presented their TSE-related activities.

Competitiveness and the EU Accession Process: Can Candidate Countries Become Competitive as EU Countries?

Abstract Economic growth and competitiveness are usually analysed at the level of the national economy in traditional economic research. The problem of competitiveness within this line of thought is mainly regarded from the perspective of determining the sources of sustainable growth, which makes the economy more competitive than others. Competitiveness, therefore, is a multidimensional concept, which includes a range of factors, such as institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic environment, market, human capital and technological development. Also, the process of joining the European Union significantly stimulates the development of the exact categories that are relevant for acceleration of the economic development. The aim of the paper is to assess the competitiveness of the candidate or potential candidate countries for membership in the European Union, through a comparative analysis of their competitiveness vis-à-vis EU countries. The results indicate that the competitiveness of the EU 15 countries, measured by Global Competitiveness Index and GDP per capita, is statistically significantly higher than the competitiveness of EU country group enlarged in the period 2004-2013, also compared to EU candidate or potential candidate countries. However, when it comes to the pillar of competitiveness related to the macroeconomic environment, according to the latest Global Competitiveness Report (2017-2018), the scores of the EU countries associated with enlargements in the period 2004-2013 are statistically significantly better than the EU 15 countries.

Significant improvement in cancer management in Europe

Abstract Background Cancer management represents one of the most complex disease management segments in health care. Quality National Cancer Control Programmes (NCCPs) play the key role in cancer management in responding to population needs by preventing, detecting and treating cancer only through adequate planning. An effective NCCP represents benefits for patients, citizens, health care providers, health systems and governments. Europe is still characterised by inequalities in cancer control both between and within countries. In response to this challenge, a generic list of evidence-based tools for efficient stewardship and measure of effects of the cancer control will be prepared. Methods A survey on the current state of NCCPs in EU Member States, EEA countries and EU candidate countries and on the presence of some key elements, which NCCPs should include, was conducted in 2018 in the frame of the Joint Action (JA) Innovative Partnership for Action Against Cancer (iPAAC). The completed surveys were analysed; the answers were compared with the report prepared on the basis of the survey carried out in 2011 in the frame of JA EPAAC. Results In total, 33 out of 34 EU Member States, some EEA countries and EU candidate countries completed the survey, the response rate was 97%. Thirty-one out of 33 countries reported that they have a NCCP or another relevant cancer document. Belgium does not have a NCCP, Croatia and Serbia prepared draft versions. The inclusion of patient pathways, quality indicators as well as PROMS in NCCPs is not satisfactory. Only 10 countries included PROMS in their NCCP. Conclusions On the basis of the preliminary results of the survey we conluded that the situation regarding NCCPs in Europe improved in comparison with the situation in 2011. EU countries have mostly adopted a NCCP, plan or strategy as a single or several documents. We aim at developing practical instructions for the successful governance and steering of cancer care in all EU Member States. Key messages The development of NCCPs represents added value for cancer patients in all EU Member States. The inclusion of patient pathways, quality indicators as well as patient reported outcome measures (PROMS) in NCCPs/cancer documents is not satisfactory.

Family Entrepreneurship and Personal Career Preferences as the Factors of Differences in the Development of Entrepreneurial Potential of Students

The purpose of this study is to examine the differences in family entrepreneurship background and personal attitudes of students regarding their future career preferences and its effects on the development of specific dimensions of entrepreneurship potential of a student population. The sample consisted of a student population from Serbia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina as EU candidate countries and Belgium as an EU member country. A sample of 1008 university students from these three countries participated in this research. Instruments used in this research were the Questionnaire of Entrepreneurial Traits (QET) and the Scale of Entrepreneurial Potential (SEP). Canonical discriminant analysis confirmed significant differences in scores on both QET and SEP scales of entrepreneurial potential between students that have family entrepreneurship background and those who do not. Differences were also shown among students who strive for self-employment, and consider establishing their own business, and students who would like to find employment in the state or private sector. Young people whose family members are engaged in entrepreneurship are influenced by their parents who started companies, parents’ personal characteristics, and parent’s model of behavior, which significantly shapes the behavior and characteristics of these young people, compared to those young people whose parents do not start companies. Young people who prefer to build a career within their own enterprise have basic characteristics that predispose them for engagement in entrepreneurship within their own company, whereby this provides them with the only way they can achieve the full capacity of their individual potential. Both these groups display a more developed initiative, independence in decision making, they are more open minded and prone to take on risks, have more developed organizational skills, and more positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship. Results of this study can help identify and foster factors that significantly develop specific characteristics of entrepreneurship potential of student populations, such as family entrepreneurship background and career preferences.

Interest Rate Pass-Through in Three EU Candidate Countries: The Case of Albania, North Macedonia and Serbia

The objective of the paper is to assess the interest rate pass-through in three EU candidate countries that is Albania, North Macedonia and Serbia. We rely on an error-correction model using monthly data over the period 2005-2019. Results suggest a complete interest rate pass-through in Albania, albeit it has been weakened during the economic and financial crisis. The relatively fast speed of adjustment indicates an effective interest rate transmission channel. In the Macedonian case, the changes of the monetary policy rate are transmitted completely to the bank lending rate, but not to the bank borrowing rate. The transmission via the money market rate has improved after the global economic and financial turmoil. In the case of Serbia, the results also suggest complete interest rate pass-through indicating that the monetary policy rate changes are transmitted into retail rates offered by the banks to savers and borrowers in the long run. Nevertheless, the speed of adjustment is relatively slow. In general, the estimated speed and extent of the response of money market interest rate and bank retail interest rates to changes in the monetary policy rate gives an indication of effective interest rate transmission channel in the case of Albania and Serbia. On the other hand, it is moderately effective in the case of North Macedonia given that the central bank rate changes affect mainly bank lending rate but not borrowing rate.

Impact of terrestrial and marine pollution on the Black Sea quality of water

Black Sea represents a direct link between the European Union, EU candidate countries and some Asian countries such as Russia, Georgia, etc. During the last decades, the Black Sea has been confronted with unexpected environmental problems. In the south part of the Romanian seashore has appeared erosion, in the North-East part of the Black Sea appeared a massive algae development, followed by modification of the maritime biological balance. In parallel, the maritime water parameters have been changed, partly due to the water discharged from the main rivers as Danube, Dnieper, Dniester, partly from the amount of freshwater from deep currents new appeared in the last decades, and partly due to the impact of the pollutant sources. Firstly, are mentioned some data, based on the local measurements and registered data, which underlines the actual situation, referring at the existing sources of pollution, the hydrocarbons and ions concentration, etc. with immediate consequences on the local equilibrium of the marine bio-system. The registered Turkish accidents with spilled oil briefly mentioned, were followed in a short term by a process of nitrification, with many consequences. Next are presented the appeared modifications, registered in the Black Sea fauna, some endangered species, correlated with the simultaneous apparition of some invasive species. Finally, some conclusions and references are presented.

2004 Yılında Avrupa Birliği ne Aday Olan Ülkelerdeki Eğitim Sisteminden Duyulan Memnuniyet Üzerine Bir Araştırma

This research aims to investigate the factors that affect satisfaction level from the education system in the EU candidate countries in 2004. Ordered logit model estimates are obtained using Eurobarometer 2004.1 data set. The results of the analysis demonstrate that satisfaction level from the education system is the lowest in Turkey amongst the EU candidate countries in 2004. Additionally, the study reports that the most important variables on the satisfaction level from the education systems are country variable, trust to the government and the variable that reflects if education is one of the two most important problems facing the related country.

From Eu-phoria to Eu-phobia? Changing Turkish Narratives in Eu–Turkey Relations

Abstract Since the 1999 launch of EU candidate country status, EU–Turkey relations have reached a new level of closer engagement. Across time, the relations demonstrate different levels of engagement and, accordingly, different narratives. Regarding the Turkish narratives of the EU, the EU is framed across time as follows: EU as a democratic anchor; EU as a disappointment; EU as an untrustworthy entity; EU as an enemy. As seen, Turkish narratives demonstrate a trend from EU-phoria to EU-phobia. In the end, it is important that EU–Turkey relations and Turkish narratives on the EU are not immune to domestic developments, especially those shaped by populist politics in the last two decades.

Shadow economy - is an enterprise survey a preferable approach?

The direct approaches to measuring the shadow economy have not been used extensively until very recently. A relatively simple method has been developed (Talis J. Putnins and Arnis Sauka 2015) using an income approach to measuring GDP and exploiting survey data on unreported employee wages and the business income generated by enterprises, which was provided by owners/managers of such enterprises. This paper illustrates the advantages of this approach over indirect ones through applying it to two EU candidate countries. This is first done by measuring the size of the shadow economy and then by providing estimates of the factors which cause enterprises to engage in shadow economic activity. Estimates of these factors suggest a number of policy approaches that could reduce the size of the shadow economy in countries similar to the ones we have used here.

DATA QUALITY IN THE AGRI-ECONOMIC RESEARCH IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA

The transition process in the South-East European countries opened new research topics and encouraged use of new methodologies in agricultural economic studies. The process of transformation of the agri-food sector towards market economy principles required introduction of complex micro and macroeconomic models to evaluate the alternative solutions to the ongoing challenges. The models’ relevance and their usefulness depend on the availability and quality of input data. Data unavailability and big differences among databases make data sets unreliable and require adjustments to make them suitable for use. As an EU candidate country since 2005, the Republic of Macedonia conducts institutional and systemic harmonization, including the national statistics. The aim of this paper is to analyse the role of data and their quality in the agricultural economics research in Republic of Macedonia, through a review of the available literature and experiences of the stakeholders (based on users’ survey) in the last decade. The analysis uses the attribute-based approach (Wang, Reddy and Kon, 1995), defining data quality as multi-dimensional and hierarchical concept. The paper underlines the role of data availability and their quality for the needs of evidence-based policy decision making; and the need for more active involvement of the agricultural economics science and practice in the creation, harmonization, quality assurance and sharing of data necessary for research.

The Importance of the Judiciary for the European Integration of EU Candidate Countries: The Case of Albania

All Western Balkan countries currently holding the EU Candidate Country status, namely, Albania, Montenegro, FYROM, Serbia, and hopefully in the near future Kosovo, are in a critical stage of the EU integration. From their institutions are required serious reforms, and some of these reforms are necessary for almost all the of above countries. The focus of this paper is Albania. After the approval of the EU Candidate Country status, each branch of the Albanian government is now facing new legal challenges. However, at this stage, particularly after the vetting process, the central role passes to the judiciary, which should and could turn into a real “engine” of the EU integration. The new role of the Albanian judiciary for the EU integration should primary be understood and recognized by judges themselves, as well as academics and the public. Judges in particular, should know what instruments are available there, in order to best perform their new task. This paper initially aims to clarify the new role of the Albanian judiciary, as the “engine” of the EU integration, in order to raise awareness not just to judges, but also to academics and the public. Then, it will present what practical instruments can and must be used by the Albanian judiciary in order to best achieve the required EU integration. Examples of such instruments are: the preliminary ruling; principle of supremacy; principle of direct effect; principle of indirect effect; and most importantly, EU remedies in national courts. The paper will analyze each of these instruments and will display precisely how Albanian courts can use them in favor of their citizens, and for achieving higher EU integration. In conclusion, the article suggests that although significant constitutional and legal reforms are needed, the existing constitutional and legal framework of Albania allows the judiciary to perform its new role as the “engine” of the EU integration.