EU Birds Research Articles

How do we know if managed realignment for coastal habitat compensation is successful? Insights from the implementation of the EU Birds and Habitats Directive in England.

In England saltmarshes account for less than 0.5% of the land area; however they have a very high biodiversity value and provide significant economic and social services. Climate change, continuous coastal urbanisation and port development are serious concerns for coastal protection planners, city councils and state government agencies interested in balancing the social, economic and environmental needs of these dynamic areas to ensure sustainable development. Providing habitat ‘compensation’, creating new intertidal habitats to replace those lost to developments and coastal protection schemes via Managed Realignment (MR), has been identified in the UK as the principal way to manage the loss of habitat and prevent biodiversity loss. However, the few existing studies that do evaluate the effectiveness of managed realignment projects in England indicate that they are not compensating fully for the original loss of habitat. Through an analysis of scientific and grey literature, conservation legislation, and purposive semi-structured interviews, we sought to ascertain what motivates the continued use of MR for habitat compensation in England, as well as in what ways success is defined by practitioners at various scales. We find that ambiguities in the conservation legislation, inconsistencies regarding definitions and evaluative metrics across scales, and a lack of transparency and reporting in past projects has led to confusion regarding what specifically should be recreated in MR projects for habitat compensation, and how best to instigate it. From this, we argue that to be able to evaluate whether current MR practices in England will actually preserve biodiversity, or contribute to its loss, and thus to ensure consistent and effective monitoring, evaluation and implementation of scientific best practices 1) habitat compensation needs to be rigorously defined; 2) consistent, cross-scalar success criteria and targets for MR projects need to be clearly established; and 3) transparent reporting and evaluation of MR projects by independent agencies should be promoted.

Predicting the impact of seasonal fluctuations on the potential ecotoxicological risk of multiple contaminants in the River Scheldt discharge into the Western Scheldt estuary

The study site, Land van Saeftinghe, is an area within the Western Scheldt estuary with Special Protection Area (SPA) status for the EU Birds directive. We used a combination of hydrodynamic and water quality monitoring, hydrodynamic and water quality and modeling, ecotoxicity modeling and observations on the ecological status to correlate the water quality to the observed ecological status of the study site.The monitoring and modeling results show that the copper concentrations are elevated above the Maximum Tolerable Concentration (MTR) during the whole year, while zinc and cadmium show a spring peak (>MTR). Other metals, and all the measured organic contaminants where below the MTR.The peak in the three metals during springtime translates into an increase in the ecotoxicity, as expressed by the calculated multi-substance Potentially Affected Fraction (ms-PAF). The ms-PAF peaked at 25% for all organisms, and 30% for benthic invertebrates. The observed ecological status for the study site at the time of monitoring (2000) was Maximum Ecological Potential (MEP). This result seems to be in contradiction with the exceedance of the MTR for three metals during spring time. However the calculated ms-PAF during the spring peak of 25% is deemed acceptable based on current policy, therefore potential ecotoxic stress is within acceptable boundaries. The ms-PAF results therefore do not contradict the MEP status.The evaluation of the ecological status versus the water quality within the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) can be improved by using the calculated ecotoxicity (ms-PAF) instead of the water quality. We propose an additional step for water bodies which are currently ‘at risk’, based on their chemical status. In this additional step, the ms-PAF is calculated for all contaminants in the water phase, not discriminating between priority and non-priority substances. The outcome of this calculation defines if the water body is at risk.

Pheasant poults – buzzard prey or gamebirds?

Applications for licences to kill buzzards in order to prevent serious damage to the viability of pheasant shoots were regarded by Natural England, the licensing authority, as sufficiently novel to require direction from the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), the government department responsible for the licensing provisions in the Wildlife & Countryside Act and their implementation in accordance with the EU Birds Directive. Defra declined to issue a specific policy for raptors and instructed Natural England to apply the general policy. The court found that Natural England had not done this but had, in effect, applied a hidden policy to refuse such applications. Natural England’s decision to refuse to grant licences was quashed on the grounds of reliance on an undisclosed policy, taking account unlawfully of public opinion, unreasonableness and failing to deal with the option of licensing live trapping of birds. Ouseley J also found that the case was covered by the Aarhus Convention because it related to an environmental matter. The fact that the case was about a refusal to grant a licence and therefore amounted to a challenge seeking to cause harm was irrelevant.

Environmentalism in the crosshairs: Perspectives on migratory bird hunting and poaching conflicts in Italy

Migratory bird hunting has a long tradition in the Mediterranean, but remains a highly controversial issue. Here we examine the Mediterranean migratory bird hunting controversies through the case of Italy. We interviewed key informants and carried out participant observation on both legal and illegal migratory bird hunting and migratory bird protection, in four key migratory bird hunting sites in Italy. In many cases, both migratory bird hunters and bird protection activists consider themselves as the stewards of nature. Environmentalists accuse hunters of illegal practices, while hunters believe anti-poaching activists aim to threaten the existence of hunting itself. Yet surprisingly, the legality of specific hunting practices emerges as peripheral to the concerns of both groups. The lack of dialogue and increasingly polarized positions on both sides make it difficult to assure compliance with EU and national migratory bird hunting laws, and hinders finding shared solutions that consider differing values in a rapidly changing society.

Determinants of legitimate governance of marine Natura 2000 sites in a post-transition European Union country: A case study of Puck Bay, Poland

This paper analyses the process of the creation of management plans for two marine protected areas in Puck Bay, Poland, belonging to the European Natura 2000 network. The review of documents, observations of public consultations and interviews with stakeholders allowed to identify the limitations of the process in terms of governance and legitimacy. Legitimacy—accountability of decision-makers; transparency and consistency of their decisions; and their consideration for the opinions of stakeholders—is a prerequisite for a wide support for conservation measures. Legitimate governance faces unique challenges in post-transition countries, such as Poland, where citizens tend to mistrust decision-makers and experts, and where the opinions of local citizens and municipalities were often ignored in the past. Because the creation of Natura 2000 sites—required under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives when Poland accessed to the EU—was not participatory, local communities consider these conservation measures as imposed and threatening their economic well-being. The analysis in this paper showed that transparency, consistency and accountability of the decision-making process could improve if the institutional responsibilities did not overlap, and if some key players, including the experts, did not play many, potentially conflicting, roles. The main conclusion is that the process is still based on bureaucratic and formal rules, even though a shift towards a more participative approach has started. Completing this shift will require replacing the participation rhetoric with participation practice, together with evidence-based decision making, and embracing openness and public debate on uncertainty.

A Theoretical Approach to Estimating Bird Risk of Collision with Wind Turbines Where Empirical Flight Activity Data Are Lacking

There are standard procedures for collecting data on numbers of birds at sites being proposed for wind farm development and evaluating collision risk for each key species. However, methods do not work well for all species. Where a local bird population is depleted, empirical data cannot provide estimates of likely collision mortality numbers if that population returns to satisfactory conservation status. Field survey methods are also inadequate for cryptic bird species. Both these problems can be important for evaluation of impacts of proposed wind farms on bird populations protected by the EU Birds Directive. We present an alternative method, based on energy constrained activity budgets and natural history, which permits assessment of likely collision numbers where empirical data are inadequate. Two case studies are presented where this approach has been successfully used to resolve disputed planning applications, one for a hen harrier population where numbers present are much below the population size at designation, and one for a cryptic species (greenshank). Our novel method helps reduce uncertainty in assessments constrained by difficulties in collecting suitable empirical data.

Is research effort associated with the conservation status of European bird species?

Research effort is critical to the success of interventions which aim to reduce de clines in biodiversity and so can be considered as a conservation resource. European bird species are among the best studied and most popular groups of animals, yet 1 in 10 are currently globally threatened or near threatened, and many have been prioritised by various multilateral environmental agreements. To investigate how research effort is directed towards European bird species, and in particular whether conservation listing prompts additional research, the number of outputs from a Web of Science search related to conservation was used to develop an index of research effort for each species. This index was then analysed against a set of population, morphological, ecological and socioeconomic parameters collated from the literature, plus measures of threat level. A series of generalised linear models revealed that the most important factors in explaining the distribution of research effort amongst European bird species included ‘European population size’, ‘potential research investment’ and ‘habitat type’, which were linked to ease of study. Also important were the species’ generation length, 1990−2000 European population trend and migration status. Research effort was not well targeted with respect to either European or global threat status, and there was little support for the suggestion that inclusion of species in legislative instruments such as Annex I of the EU Birds Directive might stimulate research. Research effort must become better prioritised to achieve the greatest net conservation benefit.

The Borki Primeval Forest as an important forest bird area

Abstract This paper presents an overview of bird research carried out in the Borki Primeval Forest during the last 30 years. The Borki Primeval Forest can be considered as one of the most important forest bird sites in Poland. Its avifauna comprises 139 breeding species, including 11 rare and endangered species listed in the Polish Red Data Book of Animals as well as 30 species listed in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. Despite its relatively small area, the Borki Primeval Forest holds at least 1% of Polish breeding population of as many as 12 bird species. For seven out of these species it is one of the most important breeding sites in the country. The avifauna of the Borki Primeval Forest consists mostly of typical forest birds including 24 indicator species which are associated with natural forests. The richness of bird species in the Borki Primeval Forest and the abundance of several valuable groups of breeding species are the result of a high landscape and habitat diversity as well as a relatively small anthropopression combined with a high degree of naturalness of forest stands.

Climate‐driven changes in winter abundance of a migratory waterbird in relation to EU protected areas

AbstractAimSpecies are responding to climate change by changing their distributions, creating debate about the effectiveness of existing networks of protected areas. As a contribution to this debate, we assess whether regional winter abundances and distribution of the SmewMergellus albellus, a migratory waterbird species listed on Annex I (EUBirds Directive) that overwinters exclusively in European wetlands, changed during 1990–2011, the role of global warming in driving distributional changes and the effectiveness of the network of Special Protection Areas (SPAs,EUBirds Directive) in the context of climate change.LocationEurope.MethodsWe used site‐specific counts (6,883 sites) from 16 countries covering the entire flyway to estimate annual abundance indices and trends at country, region (north‐eastern, central and south‐western) and flyway scales, inside and outsideSPAs. We fitted autoregressive models to assess the effect of winter temperature on the annual abundance indices whilst accounting for autocorrelation.ResultsThe Smew wintering distribution shifted north‐eastwards in Europe in accordance with the predictions of global warming, with increasing numbers in the north‐eastern region and declines in the central region. Trends in wintering numbers were more positive inSPAs on the north‐eastern and south‐western part of the flyway. However, a large proportion of the wintering population remains unprotected in north‐eastern areas outside of the existingSPAnetwork.Main conclusionsSPAs accommodated climate‐driven abundance changes in the north‐eastern region of the wintering distribution by supporting increasing numbers of Smew in traditional and newly colonized areas. However, we highlight gaps in the current network, suggesting that urgent policy responses are needed. Given rapid changes in species distributions, we urge regular national and international assessments of the adequacy of theEUNatura 2000 network to ensure coherence in site‐safeguard networks for this and other species.

35 Years of the eu Birds Directive in the Light of the Court Practice of the European Court of Justice and the German Federal Administrative Court

35 Years of the eu Birds Directive in the Light of the Court Practice of the European Court of Justice and the German Federal Administrative Court

When governments support poaching: a review of the illegal trapping of thrushesTurdusspp. in theparanyof Comunidad Valenciana, Spain

SummaryTheparanyis a device used in Comunidad Valenciana (Spain) for trapping birds by the use of limed sticks. Between 1988 and 2001 successive Comunidad Valenciana governments authorised the legal trapping of thrushesTurdusspp. in 5,000paranyeach year. Approximately 1.5 million thrushes (mostly Song ThrushTurdus philomelosand RedwingT. iliacus) along with half a million birds of many protected species (including raptors) were trapped annually. Authorisation ceased in 2001 but illegal trapping still occurs, using at least 2,000parany. Comunidad Valenciana governments have explicitly supported bird trapping on both legal and technical grounds claiming that only small numbers of thrushes are caught and that other species are unaffected, thus complying with the EU Birds Directive. Such assertions have never been proven, and regional, national and international courts have declared that theparanycontravenes nature protection laws. Comunidad Valenciana governments have deliberately overlooked such judgements. It is concluded that eradication ofparanythrough law enforcement and educational schemes would be the best option. Nevertheless, according to the EU Birds Directive, controlled bird trapping would be feasible, and the requisites for such a strategy are discussed. The main obstacle to both eradication and strictly controlled use ofparanyis the lack of political will by Comunidad Valenciana governments.

Forecasting future drowning of coastal waterbird habitats reveals a major conservation concern

Climate change-induced rising sea levels are expected to affect coastal habitats worldwide, and the associated coastal squeeze in protected coastal areas might significantly alter availability of coastal habitats. This study combines coastal bathymetry and elevation models to develop a continuous topographic model covering coastal areas on a large geographical scale, and predicts the areal change in five habitats important to numerous breeding and migrating birds. Our model indicates considerable declines in coastal habitats as a result of coastal squeeze, and reveals major conservation concerns regarding future preservation of essential waterbird habitats. In our study area this will directly influence seven species of herbivorous waterbirds occurring at internationally important numbers, and a total of 41 species of coastal birds protected under the EU Birds Directive, many of which are currently designated as having an unfavourable conservation status. Declines in coastal habitats will also affect invertebrates and fish, and through effects on food webs have an even wider ecological implication. These findings highlight the need of focused coastal management, and illustrate the cost of uncritically protecting human agricultural interests while preventing natural dynamics of the coastal zone. Our analysis indicate that pulling down existing sea walls will reduce the loss by 37–65% dependent on habitat type, but that complete compensation is unlikely in our study area due to local topography. Managed retreat of coastlines might be an efficient solution to counteract the effects of coastal squeeze, but the time and interests associated with implementation of such mitigation measures imply that the time for action is now.

Population trends in boreal birds: Continuing declines in agricultural, northern, and long-distance migrant species

When many environmental changes take place simultaneously, one of the first challenges for conservation efforts is to identify the species and environments that are in the most need of conservation measures. We studied whether there are differences in the population growth trends of 94 boreal bird species according to their migration strategies, breeding distributions (northern or southern), or breeding habitats. To this end, we examined recent trends in bird census data covering >1000km along a north–south transect in Finland, from the deciduous forests on the southern coast through the boreal taiga forest to the alpine fell area in the north. Our results show that long-distance migrants (species wintering in western or eastern Africa or Asia), northern species, and species living in agricultural environments are in decline in north-eastern Europe. The results were the same for both the long-term (27years; 1986–2012) and the short-term (12years, the most recent reporting period of the EU bird directive; 2001–2012) data set. Additionally, species breeding mainly in urban/sub-urban environments, coniferous forests, or wetlands showed negative growth trends, especially over the short-term. These results provide updated information that can be used to determine the targets of conservation efforts focused on Northern Palaearctic birds. Several different conservation measures may be needed to help these populations, ranging from protecting habitat in the migration and wintering grounds to changing climate and agricultural policies at a national and/or international level. In addition, further research is needed to identify the particular mechanisms underlying the population trends.

Offsets and Conservation of the Species of the EU Habitats and Birds Directives

Biodiversity offsets are intended to achieve no net loss of biodiversity due to economic and human development. A variety of biodiversity components are addressed by offset policies. It is required that loss of protected species due to development be offset under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives in Europe. We call this type of offset a species-equality offset because the offset pertains to the same species affected by the development project. Whether species equality can be achieved by offset design is unknown. We addressed this gap by reviewing derogation files (i.e., specific files that describe mitigation measures to ensure no net loss under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives) from 85 development projects in France (2009-2010). We collected information on type of effect (reversible vs. irreversible) and characteristics of affected and offset sites (i.e., types of species, total area). We analyzed how the type of effect and the affected-site characteristics influenced the occurrence of offset measures. The proportion of species targeted by offset measures (i.e., offset species) increased with the irreversibility of the effect of development and the conservation status of the species affected by development (i.e., affected species). Not all effects on endangered species (International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List) were offset; on average, 82% of affected species would be offset. Twenty-six percent of species of least concern were offset species. Thirty-five percent of development projects considered all affected species in their offset measures. Species richness was much lower in offset sites than in developed sites even after offset proposals. For developed areas where species richness was relatively high before development, species richness at offset sites was 5-10 times lower. The species-equality principle appears to have been applied only partially in offset policies, as in the EU directives. We suggest the application of this principle through offsets is highly important for the long-term conservation of biodiversity in Europe. Compensaciones y Conservación de las Especies de las Directivas de Hábitats y Aves de la UE.

Invisible catch: A century of bycatch and unreported removals in sea fisheries, Belgium 1929–2010

Publicly reported statistics on the production of fisheries refer to ‘landings’ as opposed to ‘catch’. However, well-informed decisions and evaluation of the impacts of fisheries on ecosystems must be based on total removals, so including the part of the catch that is discarded at sea or not reported as landings. Total removals by Belgian fisheries from all ICES fishing areas and from the Belgian part of the North Sea (BNS) from 1929 to 2010, were reconstructed by including unreported and misreported landings of the commercial fleet, unreported landings by the recreational and artisanal/subsistence fisheries and by estimating discards for the most important fisheries. Total reconstructed removals were estimated at 5.2milliont or 42% higher than the 3.7milliont publicly reported over this period. Unreported landings and discards were estimated to represent respectively 3.5% (0.2milliont) and 26% (1.3milliont) of these total reconstructed removals. The reconstructed total removals on the BNS were estimated to be 55% higher than the 0.8milliont publicly reported over this period. Discards represent an average annual of 34% of the total removals on the BNS over the entire period. The results suggest that since the 2000s, approximately 50% of all Belgian removals from its EEZ are unreported landings and discards (IUU). The unreported landings and discards are increasingly taken by non-commercial, small-scale (<12m) vessels that are not subject to reporting and not taken into consideration in planning, monitoring and enforcement. While the present paper provides a first attempt to reconstruct historical total removals for Belgium's sea fisheries, it also addresses the gaps in data and information that need to be resolved to improve the reliability of the estimates of unaccounted removals. The reconstructed time series provides a context for the wider debate about how to move to more sustainable fisheries, what the role of small-scale fisheries are, how to achieve the agreed policy targets in Belgian marine waters and in particular in the marine areas protected under the EU Habitat and Bird directives

Modelling habitat suitability for alpine rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helvetica) combining object-based classification of IKONOS imagery and Habitat Suitability Index modelling

The maintenance and restoration of high-quality habitats of wildlife species in alpine ecosystems are key issues in conservation biology. The rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helvetica), which prefers open habitats above the treeline, is listed in Annex II of the EU Bird Directive. Large areas identified as potentially important for conservation and restricted financial resources for the implementation of conservation activities necessitate the development of tools supporting habitat monitoring and management. We developed a knowledge-based Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) model for rock ptarmigan and combined it with results of an object-based image analysis of very high resolution (VHR) satellite images (IKONOS) to create a rock ptarmigan habitat suitability map in the eastern Alps of Austria. The mechanistic habitat model contained 9 habitat variables, decisive for summer habitat use of rock ptarmigan (i.e., slope, patchiness, and land cover classes for: rocks, rocks intermixed with vegetation, scree, dwarf shrubs, dwarf pine, alpine/subnival grassland, and forest). We used Definiens Professional 5.0© software for the object-based image analyses, applying multi-resolution segmentation methods. We generated a classification hierarchy comprising the same variables used in the HSI model, each augmented by areas “in shadow”, and took into account clouds, water bodies and human infrastructures. We assessed classification accuracies, applying an Error Matrix based on TTA Mask. We reached an overall classification accuracy of 0.75 and a kappa statistic value of 0.70, the latter indicating good to very good agreement. The classification results indicated that the object-oriented image classification approach using VHR data was appropriately used to create an adequate thematic map for further habitat modelling. We calculated the habitat suitability maps using MapModels. Model output was validated with ptarmigan presence–absence data, using signs (droppings) as indicators of presence. We compared presence–absence data and results of habitat suitability classification employing contingency tables and non-parametric correlations. Frequencies of sample plots with rock ptarmigan signs significantly differed between the habitat suitability classes and significantly correlated with the HSI level. Combining the mechanistic HSI model with an object-base image analysis of VHR satellite images was an effective tool for the spatially explicit assessment of habitat suitability and could be useful in regional monitoring, planning and management activities for ptarmigan.

A preliminary overview of monitoring for raptors in Croatia

Abstract There are 40 regularly occurring raptor species in Croatia (diurnal raptors and owls), but only for two species (Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus and Eleonora’s Falcon F. eleonorae) long-term monitoring (more than 10 years) of significant parts (i.e. &gt; 80%) of their national population has been implemented. For 23 species (58%), the coverage of monitoring is limited to several locations (often within borders of given protected area), involving small percentage of national population or/and has started recently. Therefore, they do not satisfy the main purpose of national monitoring programmes, i.e. to draw conclusions about the trend of the species’ national population and to support the decision-making process about conservation measures to be applied. Besides the Institute of Ornithology and several ornithological NGOs, which are recognized as main actors for the implementation of raptors monitoring, the State Institute for Nature Protection (SINP) is setting up a framework for the nationwide bird monitoring complying with the legal provisions of the EU Birds Directive and the Natura 2000 network. The highest priority is to improve the coordination between state institutions, scientific and non-governmental organizations involved in raptor conservation with the final aim to develop a national raptor conservation strategy that sets priority target species and standardized monitoring systems

MANAGEMENT ASPECTS OF BUILDING WITH NATURE PROJECTS IN THE CONTEXT OF EU BIRD AND HABITAT DIRECTIVES

The implementation of the EU Bird and Habitat Directives by the ports and dredging industry caused severe project disruptions across North-West Europe in the past. The prevalence of negative experience triggered a new approach, which aims to integrate site-specific ecosystem characteristics and project objectives during the development of the initial project design. This approach is termed ‘Building with Nature’. The authorities and practitioners hope that the new approach will improve project implementation within the existing framework of the Bird and Habitat Directives. In this paper we review a total of twelve projects in the field of dredging against the definition of ‘Building with Nature’. For each project we highlight the outcome of assessment according to article 6 of the EU Habitat Directive. In conclusion we assess if there is a connection between the application of Building with Nature and the outcome of assessment under article 6 Habitat Directive.

The Need for Future Wetland Bird Studies: Scales of Habitat use as Input for Ecological Restoration and Spatial Water Management

All over Europe, wetlands have decreased in size, lost their original dynamics and became fragmented as the consequence of an ever increasing human land use. These processes have resulted in losses of nature values, among which declines in marshland bird populations. Ecological restoration of wetland systems follows from initiatives like EU Bird and Habitat Directives and Water Framework Directive, but may be, in itself, too costly to be widely applied. More promising perspectives to reinforce the wetland part of the ecological network Natura 2000 might come into focus when combined with spatial water management which is primarily aimed at more sustainable safety against flooding. In this way, the wetland network may acquire a wider public and political support. Knowledge on scale-related habitat use of wetland birds can play a role in the process of spatial planning. We illustrate this point by distinguishing four levels of spatial and temporal habitat use by wetland birds, and giving examples for each. The four levels are: (1) birds on stopover sites during migration, (2) territorial breeding birds, (3) colonial breeding birds, and (4) staging birds on wintering sites. This asks for ecological coherence on different scales, e.g. on the international level of migration flyways, on the regional level of landscapes and on the local level of individual wetlands. It is advocated that wetland ecologists dedicate themselves more specifically to quantifying the relevant data on habitat use of birds on each of these scale levels. Meanwhile, spatial planners should try to incorporate them into their efforts in realising combinations of ecological restoration or rehabilitation of wetlands and solutions for sustainable water management. These combinations might turn the tide for some seriously threatened species of marshland and wetland birds.

Climate Change: Rethinking Restoration in the European Union's Birds and Habitats Directives

To prepare for the ecological impacts of climate change, a landscape approach is needed in which existing protected areas are enlarged and secured and ecological corridors between areas are protected and restored, thus establishing a real ecological network that is resilient to future change. This article reviews the EU Birds and Habitats Directives and shows that restoration is a central objective of the Natura 2000 network of protected areas created by the directives, at least where intense human activity and development is taking place within or nearby Natura 2000 sites. However, the current legal provisions fall short of meeting the requirements necessary to help biodiversity adapt to climate change. The good news is that these shortcomings do not hinder government authorities that want to take action. The bad news is that this will always be on a voluntary basis. The article recommends a few small amendments to the Natura 2000 scheme that would require member states to develop robust restoration plans that will help nature adapt to a changing climate.