EU Birds Research Articles

A multitaxonomic assessment of Natura 2000 effectiveness across European biogeographic regions.

The Natura 2000 (N2K) protected area (PA) network is a crucial tool to limit biodiversity loss in Europe. Despite covering 18% of the European Union's (EU) land area, its effectiveness at conserving biodiversity across taxa and biogeographic regions remains uncertain. Testing this effectiveness is, however, difficult because it requires considering the nonrandom location of PAs, and many possible confounding factors. We used propensity score matching and accounted for the confounding effects of biogeographic regions, terrain ruggedness, and land cover to assess the effectiveness of N2K PAs on the distribution of 1769 species of conservation priority in the EU's Birds and Habitats Directives, including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, arthropods, fishes, mollusks, and vascular and nonvascular plants. We compared alpha, beta, and gamma diversity between matched selections of protected and unprotected areas across EU's biogeographic regions with generalized linear models, generalized mixed models, and nonparametric tests for paired samples, respectively, for each taxonomic group and for the entire set of species. PAs in N2K hosted significantly more priority species than unprotected land, but this difference was not consistent across biogeographic regions or taxa. Total alpha diversity and alpha diversity of amphibians, arthropods, birds, mammals, and vascular plants were significantly higher inside PAs than outside, except in the Boreal biogeographical region. Beta diversity was in general significantly higher inside N2K PAs than outside. Similarly, gamma diversity had the highest values inside PAs, with some exceptions in Boreal and Atlantic regions. The planned expansion of the N2K network, as dictated by the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, should therefore target areas in the southern part of the Boreal region where species diversity of amphibians, arthropods, birds, mammals, and vascular plants is high and species are currently underrepresented in N2K.

Modelling the timing of migration of a partial migrant bird using ringing and observation data: a case study with the Song Thrush in Italy

BackgroundThe study of the timing of migration is fundamental to the understanding of the ecology of many bird species and their response to climate change, and it has important conservation and management implications e.g., for assessing the hunting seasons according to the EU Directive 2009/147/EC (Birds Directive).MethodsWe developed a new method for the analysis of ringing data (both first capture and re-encounters) and citizen science observations, to assess the timing of pre- and post-nuptial migration of birds. This method was tested on the Song Thrush Turdus philomelos, using i) the Bird Ringing Database hosted by the ISPRA Italian Ringing Centre from the whole Italian peninsula, the three closest large islands (Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica), and Canton Ticino (Switzerland) and ii) the eBird data for the same study area. ResultsThe results from both datasets consistently showed that pre-nuptial migration starts during the first 10-day period of January (Jan 1) in some central and southern areas of the Italian peninsula, in central Sicily, southern Sardinia, and Corsica. The onset of migration occurs on Jan 2 in the rest of central and southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia, and western Liguria, while it starts later in the north-eastern Alps, up to Mar 3. The end of post-nuptial migration is more synchronous, occurring on Nov 1 across most of Italy, slightly earlier (Oct 3) in northern Italy and later (Nov 2) in Sicily. The uncertainty of the estimated dates was < 2 days in most cases. ConclusionThis method represents a novel and valuable tool for the analyses of the timing of migration using ringing and citizen science data and provides an important contribution to the Key Concepts Document of the EU Birds Directive, where migration timings are considered and used to define the hunting period of birds.

The need for a flyway approach in defining the onset of prenuptial migration of huntable bird species across Europe

The identification of the onset of prenuptial migration is fundamental in defining the closing date of the hunting season in compliance with the EU Birds Directive. Here, we describe the process and country‐by‐country approach currently followed by the European Commission to define the onset of prenuptial migration for each huntable bird species and Member State, highlighting the resulting discrepancies and inconsistencies in the starting dates of prenuptial migration between neighbouring countries. To overcome these issues, we propose the adoption of a flyway approach with a shared, analytically and biologically sound method for defining the onset of migration.

Effect of nature protection and management of grassland on biodiversity – Case from big flooded river valley (NE Poland)

Agriculturally used meadows are habitats whose biodiversity depends on anthropogenic disturbances such as fertilization or mowing. Intensified agricultural practices (too frequent mowing, use of mineral fertilizers and insecticides) lead to declines in the abundance and species diversity of the biota inhabiting them. The intensification of agricultural production in north-eastern Poland relates primarily to the increase in cattle numbers and the intensification of grassland management, but many areas were included in Natura 2000 network. Our study was aimed at indicating the impact of diverse use of meadows on the species richness and diversity of invertebrates, amphibians, and birds in the grasslands of Narew river valley, Special Bird Protection Area, where the intensification of grassland use was noted in the last decades, and part of the meadows was included in the agri-environmental program. The agri-environmental program is a very good tool for the protection of grassland biotic diversity. The highest taxonomic richness and diversity of the studied animal groups were found in meadows included in these programs with extensive use, while the lowest was in the over- and intensively used meadows fertilized with mineral fertilizers and liquid manure. Only the meadows in the agri-environment program were inhabited by the fire-bellied toad and the tree frog - amphibians from Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. The number of breeding bird species globally threatened (IUCN Red List), listed in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, and with negative population trend in Europe (SPEC1–3) was highest in meadows included in EU conservation programs. The main factors reducing biotic diversity in the grassland of flooded river valley were the high number of grassland mowing per season, intensive fertilization, especially with liquid manure, the great distance of meadows to the river, low soil humidity, and low share of shrubs and trees in the meadows border zone.

Linking Green Infrastructure Deployment Needs and Agroecosystem Conditions for the Improvement of the Natura2000 Network: Preliminary Investigations in W Mediterranean Europe

Reconnecting natural habitats and improving agroecosystem conditions are strategic targets set by several European policies. In order to combine both of these needs, the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 has triggered new investments in Green Infrastructure (GI), which actually represents a valuable tool to increase ecological connectivity across natural and semi-natural habitats. In particular, GI may benefit the Natura2000 (N2K) network (i.e., the network of protected sites under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives) by reinforcing the node/site number, extent, and distribution and by improving connections between often small and isolated habitat patches. However, there is a lack of knowledge on what the actual needs of GI deployment are for improving the current N2K network, on the distribution of these needs across Europe and on the potential role of agricultural areas in the improvement of the network functionality. Concurrently, especially in SW Europe, there is an ongoing trend toward the homogenisation and intensification of agricultural systems and the combined loss of associated landscape elements, such as natural and semi-natural Small Woody Features (SWF). Although a well-planned network of such elements could support biodiversity and landscape connectivity, thus effectively complementing the N2K network, little evidence is available on their abundance and residual distribution, especially in agricultural areas and at continental/bioregional scales. Therefore, the present work is aimed at (i) identifying different types of territorial units (NUTS3) in W Mediterranean Europe according to current N2K network features, the overall composition of the actual landscape mosaic and the potential natural heterogeneity of the environment and (ii) identifying and spatialising N2K-related GI deployment needs according to a more specific network analysis in terms of nodes (extent of the total protected area) and links (density of residual woody elements in arable land) within the different types of NUTS3. By means of this wide-scale investigation, four different types of GI deployment needs were generalised across the W Mediterranean Europe NUTS3. Overall, the need for connection restoration prevails, followed by the need for the consolidation of node and link conservation, for the creation of new protected sites and for the enlargement of existing N2K sites. Although useful for a preliminary setting, the shortcomings related to summary data at the European level were also highlighted when compared to local-scale information, with the latter being more suitable for identifying and prioritising truly effective GI conservation and restoration actions.

Birds in Europe 4: the fourth assessment of Species of European Conservation Concern

Summary This is the fourth comprehensive assessment of the population status of all wild bird species in Europe. It identifies Species of European Conservation Concern (SPECs) so that action can be taken to improve their status. Species are categorised according to their global extinction risk, the size and trend of their European population and range, and Europe’s global responsibility for them. Of the 546 species assessed, 207 (38%) are SPECs: 74 (14%) of global concern (SPEC 1); 32 (6%) of European concern and concentrated in Europe (SPEC 2); and 101 (18%) of European concern but not concentrated in Europe (SPEC 3). The proportion of SPECs has remained similar (38–43%) across all four assessments since 1994, but the number of SPEC 1 species of global concern has trebled. The 44 species assessed as Non-SPECs in the third assessment (2017) but as SPECs here include multiple waders, raptors and passerines that breed in arctic, boreal or alpine regions, highlighting the growing importance of northern Europe and mountain ecosystems for bird conservation. Conversely, the 62 species assessed as SPECs in 2017 but as Non-SPECs here include various large waterbirds and raptors that are recovering due to conservation action. Since 1994, the number of specially protected species (listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive) qualifying as SPECs has fallen by 33%, while the number of huntable (Annex II) species qualifying as SPECs has risen by 56%. The broad patterns identified previously remain evident: 100 species have been classified as SPECs in all four assessments, including numerous farmland and steppe birds, ducks, waders, raptors, seabirds and long-distance migrants. Many of their populations are heavily depleted or continue to decline and/or contract in range. Europe still holds 3.4–5.4 billion breeding birds, but more action to halt and reverse losses is needed.

Recent changes in colony sizes of two seabird species in Scotland are not strongly influenced by Birds Directive status of the colony

Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated under the EU Birds Directive have improved the conservation status of many terrestrial bird species in Europe, but protecting breeding sites may be less effective for highly mobile birds such as seabirds. Colony census data for Great Skuas Stercorarius skua and Great Black‐backed Gulls Larus marinus in Scotland show that breeding numbers have fared no better in sites where these species are SPA breeding features and, counter‐intuitively, the evidence indicates better performance in non‐SPA colonies, most likely because non‐SPA colonies are generally smaller so are less subject to density‐dependent competition. The main drivers of population change are widespread rather than colony‐based in these two species with recent reductions in carrying capacity. Many other seabird species are vulnerable to similar widespread pressures so seabird conservation strategy needs to focus on mitigating these pressures, as designation of seabird breeding sites as SPAs is not enough to ensure effective seabird conservation.

Assessing Natura 2000 coverage of river fish species in Greece: What do field surveys show?

Europe’s Natura 2000 network (N2K), based on the EU Birds and Habitat Directives, has rapidly expanded protected areas targeting species and habitat types. In Greece, 52.4% of native freshwater fish are considered as species of EU community interest within the Habitats Directive (HD). However, 31.3% of all threatened fish species at a global level and 32.0% at a national level, are not included in the Habitat Directives Annex lists. Fishes in Greece’s rivers are understudied, precise knowledge of their distributions is poor for most species. We utilize a large set of site-based electrofishing samples to explore the coverage of these species by the country’s Natura 2000 sites. Field surveys recorded 102 species inhabiting rivers within 645 sampling sites. Although the majority of the HD listed, threatened and endemic freshwater fish species exist within the current N2K network, important gaps are evident and four HD species were not found within any Natura 2000 sites. In analyzing fish densities from field sampling, only two upland-stream species, Salmo farioides and Barbus strumicae, show significantly higher abundance inside N2K sites. Applying a Combined Index utilizing IUCN vulnerability status, species rarity and richness, we identified 161 hotspot sites for riverine fishes; 50.9 % of all hotspots are located outside of N2K network, especially in lowland areas. Unprotected areas with a high concentration of hotspots are mapped; the river basins with the highest number of such unprotected hotspots belong to the Strymonas, Pinios, Evrotas and Aoos rivers. With concern for the EU’s revised biodiversity conservation strategy, our screening level assessment provides insights for unmet conservation needs and the method is readily transferable to other states and protected area jurisdictions.

Institutional innovation in conservation law: Experiences from the implementation of the Birds and Habitats Directives in the Netherlands

In 2016, the Fitness Check of the EU Birds and Habitats Directives concluded that, in order to reach their most important objectives, the implementation of both directives needed to be improved. This paper analyses the institutional changes that characterise the implementation of the Birds and Habitats Directives in the Netherlands. These institutional changes include revisions of the rules embedded in Dutch nature conservation law, the introduction of new policy instruments, and the emergence of widely shared concepts and additional norms and rules that are used in decision-making procedures. In the first phase of the implementation of these directives, their legal requirements were integrated into national laws. In later years, national aims and rules were gradually removed from conservation law, and new instruments and rules were added. The analysis shows that most important drivers for institutional change were a discourse focusing on ways to stretch the legal requirements of the two directives and the interpretation of key concepts and rules that emerged in assessment and decision-making procedures and court rulings. In sum, these institutional changes have not improved the implementation of the Birds and Habitats Directives and have made it more difficult to ensure the sustainable conservation of species and their habitats in the Netherlands.

The Network of Green Infrastructure Based on Ecosystem Services Supply in Central Europe

Green infrastructure is a strategically planned network that broadens traditional biodiversity conservation methods to also encompass the concept of ecosystem services (ES). This study aims to identify the network of green infrastructure in Central Europe. An analysis of ecological connectivity is based on ES supply quantified for CORINE land cover classes. Corridors between core areas, which are represented by Natura 2000 sites, are based on the capacity of ecosystems to supply maintenance and regulating ES. The delineated network of corridors of green infrastructure covers approximately 15% of the landscape of Central Europe that provides high levels of various ES. Ecological corridors create linkages between Natura 2000 sites and support the migration and dispersal of species. Central Europe is an important transitional region where coordinated improvement of ecological connectivity is fundamental. Moreover, promotion of the green infrastructure network and full implementation of the EU Birds and Habitats Directives are targets of two important documents at the European level, the EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030 and the EU Strategy on Green Infrastructure.

Effectiveness of the European Natura 2000 network at protecting Western Europe's agro-steppes

Assessing progress towards achieving conservation targets is required for all countries committed to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Natura 2000 network is the largest protected area network in the world and was created to protect Europe's threatened species and habitats, often requiring active management. This study assesses the effectiveness of areas classified under the EU Birds Directive at protecting Western Europe's agro-steppes, the last remnants of suitable habitat for several endangered bird species. We quantify agro-steppe habitat change in the last 10 years using high-resolution aerial images of 21 Special Protection Areas and surrounding areas. The selected SPAs hold one third of the global population of great bustards Otis tarda, a flagship conservation species. Agro-steppe area losses occurred across all sites surveyed but were 45% lower inside Natura 2000 compared to non-protected areas. Natura 2000 sites still lost over 35,000 ha of agro-steppe habitat in 10 years, an area that could hold more than 500 great bustards. These low yield farmlands are being converted predominately to permanent and irrigated crops. At the current rate of habitat conversion, agro-steppes could be reduced to 50% of the present area during the next century. Moreover, the greater conversions outside protected sites may transform the remaining agro-steppes into isolated “islands” with low population connectivity. Our study on agro-steppes illustrates the relevant contribution of Natura 2000 at protecting Europe's key habitats, but also highlights crucial insufficiencies that still need to be addressed to achieve the CBD conservation targets and halt biodiversity loss.

Spatial gradients in country‐level population trends of European birds

AbstractAimPopulation trends reflect influence of environmental drivers acting upon species' population dynamics. As the strength of this influence may change predictably in space, we test multiple hypotheses about spatial gradients in the effects of environmental drivers on bird population trends across the continent.LocationEurope.MethodsWe used country‐level population trends for 249 bird species in 32 European countries. For each species, we expressed values of 12 traits which mirror the influence of major environmental drivers: climate change, land‐use change and change in environmental legislation. We related these traits to population trends using generalized additive mixed models and tested for the presence of spatial gradients by including the interaction of countries' geographic position with four of these traits for which we hypothesized spatial patterns in relationships to trends.ResultsSpecies listed for the longest time under Annex I of the EU's Birds Directive had increasingly positive trends towards the north‐west, but an indication of the opposite pattern was found for shorter‐listed species. Cold‐adapted species had increasingly negative trends towards the North and especially the north‐west, whereas the trends of the warm‐adapted species were generally positive and increased in northern direction. Spatial gradients in trends were weaker for the habitat niche position with forest species having positive trends in North‐Eastern Europe and open‐habitat species having negative trends in the Westernmost edge of the continent.Main conclusionsThe influence of all major hypothesized drivers varies across Europe. Climate change impacts are probably most detrimental in North‐Western Europe for the Arctic and upland birds, whereas the warm‐adapted species may benefit from these changes at the same time. The differences in the enforcement of environmental legislation among countries are a likely driver of the spatial patterns for the Annex I species, whereas the unification of land‐use intensity may be the cause of relatively weak patterns in the habitat niche effects.

Costs of regulating ammonia emissions from livestock farms near Natura 2000 areas - analyses of case farms from Germany, Netherlands and Denmark.

Natura 2000 areas are designated according to the EU's Birds and Habitats Directives in order to protect particular habitats and species. A variety of these habitats and species are particularly sensitive to deposition of nitrogen caused by ammonia emissions. Livestock farming is the primary source of this pollution. The purpose of this paper is to compare the costs of reaching the ammonia emission targets for different livestock farms near Natura 2000 sites in the Netherlands, Germany (Schleswig-Holstein), and Denmark. These countries have some of the highest NH3 deposition rates in Europe, and Germany in particular will have to implement new measures to reach the NEC requirements for 2030. This will also benefit nature sites in Denmark as a large share of the ammonia emissions is dispersed over long distances. The general regulation includes implementation of BAT technologies and emission ceilings. The analysis looks at regulatory aspects, the emission requirements and the cost of implementing the technologies to reduce emissions further. The selected case farms are a finisher farm and a dairy farm, and the distance to a Natura 2000 site is 400 and 2000 m. In all three countries, relatively few livestock farms are situated near or inside Natura 2000 areas. The regulatory approach is very different in the three countries and key issues are: additional deposition from projects, neighbouring livestock farms (cumulation), the inclusion of background deposition and the use of the critical loads concept. The Dutch PAS system is interesting as projected reductions in emissions are distributed as additional "room for development" today. The costs for the case farm with finishers in Schleswig-Holstein are the highest as the Filter Decree requires the use of air scrubbers. The findings suggest that farms 400 m from a Natura 2000 site in the Netherlands face lower and less costly constraints than in the other countries, whereas the opposite is the case for farms 2000 m from Natura 2000 sites. The requirements near Natura 2000, where strict requirements apply, are so high that farms will expand at a different site instead.

The Breeding Biology of the Endemic Azores Woodpigeon Columba palumbus azorica

The Azores Woodpigeon Columba palumbus azorica is considered an endemic subspecies and is currently listed in the Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. However, despite its status, the bird has rarely been studied and is classified as ‘Data Deficient’ in the Portuguese Red Data Book. Herewith, we present the first results on the breeding biology of this subspecies, based on data collected from November 2012 to October 2014 on Terceira Island. Data were obtained by monitoring nests, and additional information on breeding phenology was provided during regular counts from 100 points distributed over the island. Fifty-four nests were found mainly in exotic trees, suggesting that the species does not depend on the highly degraded native laurel forest for nesting. Egg-laying occurred from late-February to late-September, reaching its peak in May; the main laying period lasted 140 days from 1 April to 19 August. Mean clutch size (±SE) was 1.77 ± 0.06 eggs (range 1–2 eggs) and did not vary with time. Overall breeding success, calculated using the Mayfield method, was amongst the lowest ever detected for this species across its breeding range: 0.091 ± 0.048 (SE). Extreme weather events and predation by introduced mammals are likely to explain high nest failure. The population is likely to have undergone a period of growth since 1992, following a period in the 1960's when the bird was very scarce in the Archipelago due to hunting pressure. In recent years, farmers have increasingly complained to the Regional Government about damage to crops, including vineyards, caused by the Azores Woodpigeon on some of the Azorean islands.

Addressing the gap between participatory ideals and the reality of environmental management: The case of the cormorant population in Finland

AbstractEnvironmental management, similar to public management generally, is increasingly challenged by an ever more complex society. Generally, in scientific literature, participatory features are presented as solutions for adapting centrally steered management to local circumstances and for mitigating conflicts. This article argues that local realities and transformations are easily neglected in environmental management due to unsuccessful implementation of its own participatory ideals. By studying the management of cormorant–human conflicts in Finland, the article identifies critical features that can be implemented to overcome the gap between participatory ideals and the reality of environmental management. By interviewing locals and civil servants and by directing questionnaires to fishers, the article presents how management and science look for dependencies between cormorants, fish stocks, and water nutrition, although fishers and locals are primarily concerned with the combination of seal‐ and cormorant‐induced damages, the changed behaviour of fish, and reduced recreational possibilities. Narrow scientific approaches and the national interpretation of the EU Birds directive thereby impede the management system from perceiving the complete local impact of a growing cormorant population. This article identifies obstacles hindering a balanced environmental management policy and concludes that there is a need to reinforce (a) social scientific approaches; (b) vertical negotiations at the local, national, and supranational level; and (c) the training of civil servants as facilitators of communication.

Northern range shift may be due to increased competition induced by protection of species rather than to climate change alone.

Few long‐term, large‐scale studies have been conducted about the factors likely to explain changes in species abundance and distribution in winter. Range shifts are generally attributed to the climate change or land use. This study shows that other factors such as species protection and the ensuing increasing numbers of individuals and competition could be involved. It details the progressive conquest of France, the most important European wintering area for great cormorant, in three decades as its legal protection by the EU Birds Directive. It is based on 13 exhaustive national counts. Cormorants first occupied the farthest areas (Atlantic and Mediterranean lagoons, then larger rivers) from the main‐core European breeding area, with only progressive occupancy of the northeastern part later. This strategy mainly resulted from competition for optimal available feeding areas. Suboptimal areas (smaller wetlands harboring smaller night roosts, colder northeastern French areas) and progressive fragmentation of large night roosts into smaller, better located ones minimized flight costs. The coldest areas were occupied last, once other areas were saturated. Their occupancy was favored locally by the global climate change, but it played a minor role in these strategies. Both factors induced only a small NNE shift of the weighted centroid range of the wintering population (2.6 km/year) which mainly resulted from competition (buffer effect). Only the 2009 cold wave decreased the total number of wintering cormorants at the national scale, once the population had probably reached the carrying capacity of the country, while the previous cold waves had a minor effect. Comparatively, there was a greater SSE range shift of the weighted centroid of the breeding population (4.66 km/year). Range shifts of other recently protected species have been attributed to the sole climate change in the literature, but competition due to the saturation of usual wintering or breeding areas should be considered too.

Modelling golden eagle habitat selection and flight activity in their home ranges for safer wind farm planning

Onshore wind farm development may impact vulnerable large eagles at both individual and population levels and requires appropriate assessment under the EU Bird and Habitat Directives. The present conservation policy (e.g. fixed safety zones around nest sites) improves species conservation but may not prevent habitat loss or reduce collision risk in the best possible way because this policy may not consider habitat-specific effects on eagle behaviour. Here, we develop a method for estimating habitat use and flying time distribution within Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) home ranges. Location data retrieved with GPS-transmitters (Global Positioning system) in Finland indicated that these large raptors used vast areas (mean 297 km2, 95% Minimum Convex Polygon), reaching up to 14 km, but not uniformly around their nests. The best resource selection function models (cross-validation performance 83%) revealed that flying Golden Eagles preferred the vicinity of their nests, steep slopes, and old forests in their home range. They avoided human settlements and neighboring territories. GPS data indicated short flying times per day (mean 2.2 h) and about 30% of the flying time within collision risk heights (50–200 m). Together with information on habitat selection, flying times can be used for predicting airspace use of birds and in assessing the collision risk at particular wind farm locations. Thus, our method can be applied in planning wind farm locations that enable a safer co-existence of large territorial birds and wind power plants in the same landscape.

Biogeochemical dynamics and bioaccumulation processes in Manila clam: Implications for biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Ria de Aveiro Lagoon

The present work was carried out in the Ria de Aveiro Lagoon (Portugal) to better understand the dynamics driving the bioaccumulation processes in edible bivalves, namely in the Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum. For the first time, a holistic approach was applied, collecting data on sediment physico-chemical characteristics and its contamination, geochemical speciation and metal(loid) bioaccumulation in clams, from three exploited areas of the lagoon (Costa Nova, Torreira, Ílhavo). The Ria de Aveiro Lagoon is part of the Natura 2000 network, has the designation of Special Protection Area (SPA), contains Sites of Community Importance (SCI), it is protected by the EU Birds Directive (79/109/CEE) and includes a natural reserve in its northern part. Specifically concerning the metal(loid) occurrence, the monitoring and the identification of contaminated sites in protected areas are priorities, to improve the biodiversity conservation efforts and to ensure the correct management of natural resources.Results showed that multiple driving forces interacted together to determine site-specific impacts, resulting in different risks at local scale for the transferring of the metal(loid)s to the trophic chain. Hydrodynamics played a major role driving the occurrence of depositional or ablative sites, influencing the granulometric composition of sediments and their contamination; metal(loid) chemical forms were then determinated by multiple factors like pH, redox potential and organic matter content. The geochemical speciation data showed that the Ílhavo area should be considered the most dangerous in terms of clam consumption, since in case of environmental changes, possible conversion of the elements from the potentially bioavailable forms to the bioavailable ones can occur. Moreover, bioaccumulation processes in Manila clam were observed for Cd, Zn and especially As, the latter representing serious risk for consumer safety throughout clam consumption.

Multi-criteria assessment of a proposed ecotourism, environmental education and research infrastructure in a unique lagoon ecosystem: The Encañizadas del Mar Menor (Murcia, SE Spain)

Coastal lagoons host important values and provide irreplaceable services to society. Communication areas with the sea (gullets, ‘golas’ in Spanish) are dynamic environments with a key role in their overall functioning, often representing also strongholds of biodiversity, which increases their conservation value and social demand for nature-based activities. In 2013 the Regional Assembly of the Autonomous Community of Murcia adopted unanimously the creation of a pedestrian walkway to promote ecotourism, environmental education and research in the area of the ‘Encañizadas del Mar Menor’ (EMM, thereafter), a space between the aforementioned lagoon and the Mediterranean Sea. The agreement was conditioned upon the completion of an environmental feasibility study which was commissioned to the University of Murcia. The area affected concentrates several habitats and species of community importance listed in EU Habitat and Bird Directives, including habitat 1140 (Mudflats and sandflats not covered by seawater at low tide) and many seabird and waterbirds. Traditional fishing has not only preserved its ecological uniqueness but increased cultural value. The multi-criteria evaluation developed by a multidisciplinary team has combined the basic information available with specific models of response to the presence of the infrastructure and its use by visitors, especially regarding hydrological and sediment dynamics, and biodiversity (birds and habitats). Although constrained by the complex regulatory and administrative framework, and by the quality of the environmental information available, the design and development of this study provides a model for the evaluation of projects with strong public demand in ecologically sensitive areas of Mediterranean coastal lagoons. The assessment was made on the basis of four groups of viability criteria (socioeconomic, environmental, administrative and legal, technical), weighted by expert panels to rate the alternatives previously drafted. A specific social consultation provided information on the preferences and attitudes of actual users and the regional public on the intervention and its alternatives. A combined analysis of socioeconomic (positive) and environmental (negative) impacts was used to select the alternative that concurrently maximized social preferences and environmental integration. Although the possibility of building a footbridge was rejected, the selected alternative (peripheral boat itinerary) still had good social acceptance, was consistent with ecotourism policies and matched experiences carried out elsewhere. Additional utilities of such multidisciplinary assessments are their performance as public information and participation processes, and the possibility to use them as a basis for drafting initiatives for the valorisation or restoration of other sections of lagoon complexes.

Developing Environmental NGO Power for Domestic Battles in a Multilevel Context: Lessons from a Slovenian case

AbstractMany have discussed the crucial role that environmental nongovernmental organizations (ENGOs) have played in the implementation of nature protection policies across European member states. However, there are important differences in the opportunity structures among new and old member states that influence how ENGOs can act and undertake activities. This article seeks to clarify the role of ENGO capacity building within the context of multilevel environmental governance and focuses on a case in which Slovene ENGOs mobilized against the siting of 80 windmills in a natural area suggested for protection under the EU Birds and Habitats Directive. The dispute involved ENGOs seeking to pursue nature protection objectives against state authorities who prioritized green energy infrastructural development. The article analyses the mobilization strategies pursued and the combination of material, cognitive, social and symbolic resources used. The results suggest that these resources had to be mobilized and organized along both horizontal (domestic) and vertical (international) axes, and that this combination appears key in advancing an environmental protection agenda. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment