Etruscan Culture Research Articles

Tracing Receptions of Etruscan culture in Italian and European Modernism (c. 1890-1950)

Review of: Chiara Zampieri, Martina Piperno & Bart Van den Bossche (eds.), Modern Etruscans. Close Encounters with a Distant Past, Leuven, Leuven University Press, 2023, 187 p., ISBN: 9789462703797, € 30,00 (also available in Open Access).

The ancient roots of dentistry in the Mediterranean civilizations: between Etruscan and Greek traditions up to the time of imperial Rome.

Etruscans, people living in Etruria (Umbria and Tuscany, Italy), were the first to make dentures and false teeth, from 700 BCE onwards. The aim of this study was to investigate, through archaeological and anthropological records, the Etruscans ability in dental practice to understand better Greek's influence on their medical knowledge and, subsequently, the transmission of their medical expertise to Romans. We extensively searched literature to find out references in previous studies on Etruscan medical and dental practice by using keywords such as "Etruscan medicine" and "Etruscan dentistry." We selected various historical papers, from the ancient age texts of 5th century to 2020, which best focused on the review's purpose. Etruscan civilization was influenced by Greek's culture throughout Italian colonies and later "merge" into Greek-Roman culture. Their medical practice based on a mixture of mythology, religion, and technical abilities, especially regarding metalworking. Archaeological remains show a great competence in creating dental prosthesis and in treatment of oral diseases. The results of this paper provide an evident contribution to the knowledge of Etruscan culture, still largely unknown by an anthropological point of view, and their strong relationship with the Greeks colonies, in a profitable cultural exchange.

Masculin/féminin dans la culture étrusque : un cas limite

Cette contribution se propose d’interroger la fonction, ou plutôt le fonctionnement de la parure en contexte étrusque. Le système de la parure n’est pas seulement d’ordre symbolique, il est un système dynamique actif : il ne fait pas que signaler un statut quel qu’il soit, il le licite et le sanctionne aussi. Force est de constater que la parure intervient à des étapes précises de la destinée humaine, liées à ses métamorphoses, dans tous les moments de transformation du corps, qui correspondent à des changements de statut (rites de passage) : autant de limites à franchir… En outre, si l’on fait le bilan de la modalité des usages de la parure, révélant un véritable système en harmonie avec la cosmologie étrusque, on observe un fonctionnement spécifique, dont l’un des points saillants serait une indétermination de genre : hommes et femmes ont en partage les mêmes éléments, pour la plupart d’entre eux. Or, cette spécificité méconnaît une des fonctions essentielles de la parure en termes sociaux, celles de la différenciation des genres. Ainsi, on observe que le masculin et le féminin ne semblent pas fonctionner dans un système d’oppositions, mais de conjonction asymétrique. Nous nous proposons donc de revenir sur cette hypothèse où les limites masculin/féminin obéiraient à des normes spécifiques.

Ceramic technology and paintings of archaic architectural slabs, louteria and antefixes from the Palatine Hill in Rome (Italy)

AbstractArchaic Roman painted antefixes, architectural slabs and louteria from the Palatine Hill in Rome, Italy, were studied by non‐destructive and micro‐destructive methods: Portable X‐ray fluorescence (XRF), micro‐Raman spectroscopy, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy‐dispersive spectroscopy (SEM‐EDS) and X‐ray diffraction (XRD). The investigation enabled the characterization of raw materials and ceramic technology, providing insights on provenance. In fact, similarities were recognized with terracottas from the neighbouring Etruscan Veii. The analysis of pictorial layers revealed the use of Fe‐ and Mn‐based pigments, as well as the identification of more precious pigments on worthy pieces. The research intended to support the archaeological discussion about the frame of the nascent city of Rome, also in relation to the coeval Etruscan culture.

Representations of birds in Etruscan art (6th - late 4th century BC)

From at least the Iron Age up to the Hellenistic period, the Etruscan culture flourished in a large portion of the Italian peninsula, extending from the Po delta and the eastern Alps in the north to Campania in the south. It was characterised by a magnificent and original artistic production that took its inspiration from aspects of the natural environment inserted into mythological contexts of various origins. In Etruscan art, birds occupied a significant place, and were often represented in wall paintings and craft objects. Species still occurring on the Italian mainland, such as swans, ducks, grouse, and partridges, as well as possibly exotic taxa, domestic forms (chickens and pigeons) and other unidentifiable birds were the subject of artistic inspiration. They were depicted not only in purely cult contexts, but also in the backgrounds of naturalistic landscapes.

Il Tevere come frontiera tra Umbria ed Etruria

The Tiber river as a frontier between Umbria and Etruria: some reflections on the case study. This paper analyses the importance of the Tiber River as a frontier between Southern Umbria and the Etruscan territory, paying particular attention to the importance for the Tiber as a commercial route between two cultures along an area included between the ancient territories of Volsinii and Todi, corresponding today to the municipal territories of Baschi and Montecchio in the province of Terni. The research area corresponds to a sector of the Middle Tiber Valley between the Umbrian settlements of Todi and Amelia, where the infiltration of the Etruscan culture originated one of the most important archaeological evidence of it, such as the necropolis of Vallone San Lorenzo. In this context the site of Copio represents the main settlement related to the necropolis. Here the last field-walking survey demonstrated a longue duree of this settlement and his importance as a possible commercial intermediary between the two banks of the river.

From decoration to documentation. The Helbig-Jacobsen facsimiles and their afterlife

The Danish industrialist and brewer Carl Jacobsen (1842-1914) became interested in Etruscan culture through his long collaboration with the German archaeologist Wolfgang Helbig (1839-1915), and he made it his project to introduce the Etruscans to the Danish public in what he named The Helbig Museum. As the unique Etruscan tomb paintings were quickly deteriorating, Jacobsen decided to sponsor a complete series of facsimiles of all Etruscan paintings. In this he followed the example of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, from whom he also took the name Glyptotek for his museum, the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Helbig collected a group of painters and managed the work in Etruria while Jacobsen paid the expenses in Copenhagen. The project lasted from 1895 to 1913 and comprised sketches, tracings and facsimiles of all the then known painted tombs in Tarquinia, Chiusi, Veji, and Orvieto.

Roman History

Identity studies live. This latest batch of publications explores what made not just the Romans but the Italians, Christians, and Etruscans who they were. We begin with both age and beauty, the fruits of a special exhibition at the Badischen Landesmuseum Karlsruhe in the first half of 2018 into the most famous of Roman predecessors, the Etruscans. Most of the exhibits on display come from Italian museums, but the interpretative essays that break up the catalogue – which are also richly illustrated – are by both Italian and German scholars. These are split between five overarching sections covering introductory affairs, the ages of the princes and of the city-states, the Etruscans’ relationship with Rome, and modern reception. The first contains essays treating Etruscan origins, history, identity, and settlement area. The second begins with the early Iron Age Villanova site, before turning to early Etruscan aristocratic culture, including banqueting, burials, language, writing, and seafaring. The third and longest section considers the heyday of Etruscan civilization and covers engineering and infrastructure, crafts and production, munitions, women's roles, daily life, dance, sport, funerary culture, wall painting, religious culture, and art. The fourth section treats both the confrontation between Etruscan and Roman culture and the persistence of the former after ‘conquest’ by the latter. The fifth section contains one essay on the modern inheritance of the Etruscan ‘myth’ and one on the history of scholarship on the Etruscans. Three aspects to this volume deserve particular praise. First, it includes not only a huge range of material artefacts but also individual essays on Etruscan production in gold, ceramic, ivory, terracotta, and bronze. Second, there is a recurring interest in the interconnections between the Etruscans and other cultures, not just Romans but Greeks, Iberians, Celts, Carthaginians, and other Italian peoples. Third, it includes the history of the reception of Etruscan culture. Amid the just-shy-of-200 objects included (almost every one with description and high-quality colour image), the reader can find everything from a mid-seventh-century pitcher made from an Egyptian ostrich egg painted with birds, flowers, and dancers (147), through the well-known third- or second-century bcTabula Cortonensis – a lengthy and only partially deciphered Etruscan inscription that documents either a legal transaction or a funerary ceremony (311) – to the 2017 kit of the Etruschi Livorno American Football team (364). Since we have no extant Etruscan literature, a volume such as this is all the more valuable in trying to get a sense of these people and their culture, and the exceptionally high production value provides quality exposure to material otherwise scattered throughout Italy.

Etruscan Dance Culture as Represented in Tomb Paintings from the UNESCO Heritage Site in Tarquinia (Italy)

Karen Kain, recipient of the Companion of the Order of Canada and artistic director of the National Ballet of Canada, wrote an autobiography entitled Movement Never Lies referring to a truism about professional dance. The UNESCO heritage site of Tarquinia (Italy) featuring Etruscan tomb dance imagery has never been studied through Classical scholarship from the perspective of a professional dancer nor from the perspective of analysis of depiction of movement. The author of this presentation, a former dancer with the National Ballet of Canada (1986-1992) who is a Classics Major, has endeavoured to prove that examination of movement depiction can be used as evidence to provide insight into Etruscan culture. Methodology for the study is based on the premise that Etruscan dance representations of humans Ca. 2500 years ago and the techniques of the dancer of today reflect actions by the same species; therefore, a comparative is possible for the essence of the movement communicated.
 Results of the study indicate that representation of the Etruscan dance language is realistic and stable, is organically derived, is immensely practical, and has unique features within the Mediterranean cultural milieu. This preliminary study highlights the possibility of using ancient Classical cultures as models and terms of comparison for better understanding aspects of modern societies. It is salient that in contemporary culture, woman and children are dying to dance (from eating disorders), while Etruscans seemed to be dancing to live or to become ambassadors for an afterlife indicated by the Etruscan models.

Norwidowskie „etruski” literackie

Norwid’s stay in Florence – the capital of the former Etruria – in the 1840s coincided with the height of European interest in Etruscan culture. In Italy, there were numerous Etruscan museums, mainly private ones, with magnificent collections from excavations. In Europe (Italy, France, Germany and Great Britain) a lot of interesting and usually richly illustrated publications on the Etruscans were published. Norwid could have become familiar with a good selection of these works at the University Library in Berlin, and also in Italy itself. It seems, however, that his Etruscan passion was born in Poland, in the paint shop of Aleksander Kokular. In the Warsaw years, the poet must have visited the magnificent Gallery of Antiquity in Wilanow (where his teacher – Kokular, produced various paintings) and as a “student” of fine arts he had to know the pioneer work (and collections) of S.K. Potocki O sztuce u dawnych, czyli Winckelmann polski , three chapters of the book were devoted to Etruscan art. Not without significance were Norwid’s contacts (domestic and Parisian) with the “Etruscan” collectors: the Potocki, Czartoryski and Dzialynski families. The Etruscans left their mark both in the notebooks and in the works of the author of Quidam , from his Italian period (which is obvious) to the novel Tajemnica lorda Singelworth written shortly before his death; thus Norwid’s fascination with Etruscan culture and art lasted until the end of his life. Interestingly, the notes also confirm his presence at one of the most recent archaeological sites of that time: in the presumed tomb of the Etruscan ruler Porsenna. All these facts make Norwid one of the few Polish Romantics (alongside J.I. Kraszewski) who were deeply and substantively interested in this archaeological and cultural theme. Norwid’s literary and plastic “Etruscan” works also constitutes an important – equal to the vision of British, Italian and French artists – contribution of the Polish “magician” to saving and preserving the Etruscan heritage in the culture (and awareness) of modern Europe.

Genetic evidence does not support an etruscan origin in Anatolia

The debate on the origins of Etruscans, documented in central Italy between the eighth century BC and the first century AD, dates back to antiquity. Herodotus described them as a group of immigrants from Lydia, in Western Anatolia, whereas for Dionysius of Halicarnassus they were an indigenous population. Dionysius' view is shared by most modern archeologists, but the observation of similarities between the (modern) mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of Turks and Tuscans was interpreted as supporting an Anatolian origin of the Etruscans. However, ancient DNA evidence shows that only some isolates, and not the bulk of the modern Tuscan population, are genetically related to the Etruscans. In this study, we tested alternative models of Etruscan origins by Approximate Bayesian Computation methods, comparing levels of genetic diversity in the mtDNAs of modern and ancient populations with those obtained by millions of computer simulations. The results show that the observed genetic similarities between modern Tuscans and Anatolians cannot be attributed to an immigration wave from the East leading to the onset of the Etruscan culture in Italy. Genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia do exist, but date back to a remote stage of prehistory, possibly but not necessarily to the spread of farmers during the Neolithic period.

Middle to late Holocene environmental evolution of the Pisa coastal plain (Tuscany, Italy) and early human settlements

A cross-disciplinary (sedimentological, geochemical, micropalaeontological and archaeological) examination of 12 continuous cores, up to 20 m long, integrated with stratigraphical, geomorphological and historical investigations, allows for reliable delineation of the middle–late Holocene environmental evolution in the Pisa old town area, with special emphasis on the Etruscan age transition. Depositional facies were identified through integration of sedimentological and micropalaeontological (benthic foraminifers, ostracods, phytoclasts and palynomorphs) data, while sediment dispersal patterns were reconstructed on the basis of geochemical analyses. Facies architecture was chronologically constrained by combined archaeological and radiocarbon dating. The turnaround from early Holocene, transgressive conditions to the ensuing (middle–late Holocene) phase of sea-level highstand is witnessed by a prominent shallowing-upward succession of lagoonal, paludal and then poorly drained floodplain deposits supplied by two river systems (Arno and Serchio). This ‘regressive’ trend, reflecting coastal progradation under nearly stable sea-level conditions, was interrupted by widespread swamp development close to the Iron–Etruscan age transition. The expansion of vast, low-lying paludal areas across the alluvial plain was mostly induced by the intricate, short-term evolution of the meandering Arno and Serchio river systems. These changes in the fluvial network, which occurred during a period of variable climate conditions, strongly influenced the early Etruscan culture (7th–5th century BC) in terms of human settlement and society behaviour. Conversely, a strong impact of human frequentation on depositional environments is observed at the transition to the Roman age (from the 1st century BC onwards), when the wetlands were drained and the modern alluvial plain started to form. The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction fits in with the original geographical descriptions mentioned in Strabo's Chronicles, and provides chronologically constrained data of fluvial evolution from the Pisa old town area.

Origins and Evolution of the Etruscans’ mtDNA

The Etruscan culture is documented in Etruria, Central Italy, from the 8th to the 1st century BC. For more than 2,000 years there has been disagreement on the Etruscans’ biological origins, whether local or in Anatolia. Genetic affinities with both Tuscan and Anatolian populations have been reported, but so far all attempts have failed to fit the Etruscans’ and modern populations in the same genealogy. We extracted and typed the hypervariable region of mitochondrial DNA of 14 individuals buried in two Etruscan necropoleis, analyzing them along with other Etruscan and Medieval samples, and 4,910 contemporary individuals from the Mediterranean basin. Comparing ancient (30 Etruscans, 27 Medieval individuals) and modern DNA sequences (370 Tuscans), with the results of millions of computer simulations, we show that the Etruscans can be considered ancestral, with a high degree of confidence, to the current inhabitants of Casentino and Volterra, but not to the general contemporary population of the former Etruscan homeland. By further considering two Anatolian samples (35 and 123 individuals) we could estimate that the genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia date back to at least 5,000 years ago, strongly suggesting that the Etruscan culture developed locally, and not as an immediate consequence of immigration from the Eastern Mediterranean shores.

An Analysis of the Cremated Human Remains in a Terracotta Cinerary Urn of the Third-Second Century BCE from Chiusi, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York

A small quantity of burned human remains was found in a Hellenistic terracotta cinerary urn from Chiusi now housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. This mold-made, painted ceramic chest decorated with a battle scene and its lid in the form of a reclining male figure were purchased from a collection known to be rich in materials recovered from Chiusi and its environs. Across the upper edge of the chest is the name of the deceased, inscribed in red pigment. In general, remains found in cinerary containers are assumed to belong to the individuals for whom the object was originally purchased, and a “blind” evaluation of the bones in this container was undertaken as part of the overall study of this object. Comparing the results of the skeletal study with the information from the inscription and lid form offers insights regarding the use of biological studies in augmenting our understanding of the ways in which cinerary containers were used and, by extension, how mortuary practices formed an important part of the Etruscan culture.

Etruskische Religion und Christentum

During the Roman Empire, when an autonomous Etruscan culture had disappeared long ago, aspects of the old Etruscan religion were still surviving and had been integrated in the Roman traditional religion: the haruspices, acting as diviners for public or private purposes all over the Roman empire, could interpret prodigies, what Roman priests and even augurs did not. When, with the Christians, a new religion arrived which risked to overthrow the old national religion of the Romans, Etruscan religious tradition played an important role against the rise of Christianity: with the sacred books of the Etruscans, with the prophets who were alleged to have created the Etruscan religious tradition, the Romans could find in their own heritage what could match the Bible of the Christians or their prophets. Unsurprisingly, haruspices were active in the resistance movement against the new religion.

The mystery of Etruscan origins: novel clues fromBos taurusmitochondrial DNA

The Etruscan culture developed in Central Italy (Etruria) in the first millennium BC and for centuries dominated part of the Italian Peninsula, including Rome. The history of the Etruscans is at the roots of Mediterranean culture and civilization, but their origin is still debated: local or Eastern provenance? To shed light on this mystery, bovine and human mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) have been investigated, based on the well-recognized strict legacy which links human and livestock populations. In the region corresponding to ancient Etruria (Tuscany, Central Italy), several Bos taurus breeds have been reared since historical times. These breeds have a strikingly high level of mtDNA variation, which is found neither in the rest of Italy nor in Europe. The Tuscan bovines are genetically closer to Near Eastern than to European gene pools and this Eastern genetic signature is paralleled in modern human populations from Tuscany, which are genetically close to Anatolian and Middle Eastern ones. The evidence collected corroborates the hypothesis of a common past migration: both humans and cattle reached Etruria from the Eastern Mediterranean area by sea. Hence, the Eastern origin of Etruscans, first claimed by the classic historians Herodotus and Thucydides, receives strong independent support. As the Latin philosopher Seneca wrote: Asia Etruscos sibi vindicat (Asia claims the Etruscans back).

Religion in ancient Etruria

This lively translation of Devins, Dieux et Demons is the first English-language edition of Jean-Rene Jannot's highly informative examination of Etruscan religion. Jannot tackles this elusive subject within three major constructs - death, ritual, and the nature of the gods - and presents recent discoveries in an accessible format. Jane K. Whitehead's translation updates Jannot's innovative text and introduces readers of all types - students, scholars, and the general audience - to this thorough overview of ancient Etruscan beliefs, including the afterlife, funerary customs, and mythology. Provocative insights and thoughtful discussions contribute to an understanding of the prophetic nature of Etruscan culture. Jannot investigates the elaborate systems of defining space and time that so distinctly characterize this ancient society. Jannot offers a unique perspective that illuminates the origins of some of our own modern religious beliefs. This updated edition includes more than 100 illustrations that depict early temples, statues, mirrors, tablets, and sculptures.

The Etruscans outside Etruria

During the last millennium B.C., before the coming of the Romans, the Etruscans built a thriving civilization in the western Mediterranean basin, which was rich in natural resources. From the eighth century B.C., Etruria became a destination on the Italian peninsula for refined works by artisans of the Hellenic regions, the Near East, and central Europe, and for masters from these regions, who emigrated and began to work for the local clientele. These artisans would contribute significantly to the development of an art that was recognizably Etruscan. The influence of Etruscan civilization on other cultures has received less attention from archaeologists than has the effect of the Eastern and Greek worlds on Etruscan culture. This lavishly illustrated volume seeks to redress this imbalance by tracing the Etruscans' impact beyond Etruria. It focuses on the panorama of their commerce and the Etruscan ideological and cultural initiatives that radiated from their native territory into other regions. Etruscan civilization spread across a surprisingly vast area, from ancient Italy out into the Mediterranean basin and continental Europe. The book devotes new attention to details that vary from region to region, with a number of chapters devoted to regional specialists. They offer fresh perspectives on the history, art, and political organization of a culture that, in many ways, remains mysterious.

Etruscan Viewed as a Greek Creole Language

Etruscan artefacts with inscriptions, expessing Etruscan culture, were rediscovered more than two centuries ago, but the Etruscan complex has remained an enigma that can only be solved by comprehension of its language. Repeated attempts to relate it to other languages, Indo-European or otherwise, have consistently failed, partly because of Etruscan's anomalous grammar. Translational attempts have therefore been restricted to combinatory methods with unsatisfactory results. Here the possibility is raised of Etruscan being a Creole language, derived from Greek. To justify this postulate and thereby to provide a promising new avenue for research, both linguistic and archeological, interpretations and archeological implications are given of representative Etruscan texts deciphered with this key.

Etruscan art and culture: a bibliography 1978-1990

Etruscan art and culture: a bibliography 1978-1990