Ethnolinguistic Groups Research Articles

The Chinese Freedom Schools: Historicizing and intersecting Lau with Brown

AbstractThe Chinese of Chinatown, San Francisco largely opposed the city-wide racial integration plan that would bus their children across the city beginning in 1971. Claiming that it was a violation of their language rights, a need for cultural preservation and continued autonomy from the San Francisco that had long excluded them, Chinatown instituted its own school system called the Chinese Freedom Schools. With this boycott of the public schools, the Chinese were constituted as oppositional to the aims of racial integration, searing constructions of them as being pro-White, anti-Black, and separatist. Yet, such a simplistic and binary argument omits the long history of exclusion including employment, schooling, housing, and voting discrimination as evidenced by the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882–1965), the only law to exclude a specifically named ethnolinguistic group. To historicize and understand the Chinese Freedom Schools, I analyze this phenomenon using a racial matrix where Asians have long occupied a liminal, in-between space as perpetually foreign, unassimilable, and as a suspect class. Drawing from the theories and concepts of LangCrit, raciolinguistic ideologies and Asian American studies, I examine how agents, institutions, the press, and policies imposed, assumed, or negotiated specific identities of the Chinese during the development, implementation, and dissolution of the Chinese Freedom Schools. I analyze how the Chinese were constructed as uncooperative, creating a competitive cleavage among Asians and Blacks, while dismissing the centrality of White families who largely moved out of the system, avoiding critique. Implications for language-in-education policy are proposed for Lau’s 50th anniversary.

Earnings mobility across three generations of natives in Finland: A comparison of Finnish and Swedish speakers

We examine earnings mobility across three generations in Finland and compare two native groups with equal constitutional rights, Finnish speakers and Swedish speakers. Based on register data of the total population, we employ rank-rank regressions to assess the degree to which earnings in men relate to their fathers’ and paternal grandfathers’ earnings. We estimate regressions on the national level and in regions with Swedish-speaking population. The earnings rank of the grandfather is found to play a modest role net of the earnings rank of the father. Earnings mobility is higher in regions where the numerical minority of Swedish speakers is settled, but the two ethnolinguistic groups differ only in the Helsinki capital region, where earnings mobility is higher among the Swedish speakers. Less than one fifth of this ethnolinguistic gradient can be attributed to educational and other observed differences. These findings suggest that, in a geographically concentrated and well-performing ethnolinguistic group, social integration and networks may play a role in providing opportunities independently of parents’ achievements.

Relationship between education in the Welsh medium and self-esteem for primary Cymreag and English speakers

ABSTRACT Objectives Of relevance to minority ethno-linguistic groups is the association between self-esteem and proficiency in their heritage language. The current study explored whether self-esteem of Cymraeg (Welsh) speaking pupils in Welsh/Bilingual-medium schools was higher than Cymraeg-speaking pupils in English-medium schools. Methods 1,709 pupils from Welsh/Bilingual and English-medium schools in Wales completed the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale. Scores were analysed as a function of their primary language (language they use most often) and the linguistic medium of their school. Results Relative to primary-English speakers (pupils using English most) attending Welsh/Bilingual-medium schools, primary-Cymraeg speakers (pupils using Cymraeg most) attending Welsh/Bilingual-medium schools recorded higher self-esteem scores. There was no difference in self-esteem between speakers of different languages attending English-medium schools. Primary-English speakers attending English-medium schools recorded higher levels of self-esteem relative to primary-English speakers attending Welsh/Bilingual-medium schools. There was no difference in self-esteem between primary-Cymraeg speakers attending Welsh/Bilingual and English-medium schools. Longitudinal analysis suggests self-esteem increased for primary-Cymraeg speakers attending Welsh/Bilingual medium schools only, but pupils educated in their non-primary language demonstrated a decrease in self-esteem. Conclusion The results suggest care is needed when allocating pupils to schools, as language of the school and the pupil’s primary language interact in determining self-esteem over time.

Toward building a comprehensive human pan-genome: The SEN-GENOME project

The human reference genome (GRCh38), primarily sourced from individuals of European descent, falls short in capturing the vast genetic diversity across global populations. Efforts to diversify the reference genome face challenges in accessibility and representation, exacerbating the scarcity of African genomic data crucial for studying diseases prevalent in these populations. Sherman etal. proposed constructing reference genomes tailored to distinct human sub-populations. Their African Pan-Genome initiative highlighted substantial genetic variation missing from the GRCh38 human reference genome, emphasizing the necessity for population-specific genomes. In response, local initiatives like the Senegalese Genome project (SEN-GENOME) have emerged to document the genomes of historically overlooked populations. SEN-GENOME embodies community-driven decentralized research. With meticulous recruitment criteria and ethical practices, it aims to sequence 1,000 genomes from 31 ethnolinguistic groups, in the fourteen administrative regions of Senegal, fostering local genomic research tailored to the region. The key to SEN-GENOME's success is its commitment to local governance of data, capacity building, and integration with broader pan-genome projects in Africa. Despite the complexities of data harmonization and sharing, our collaborative efforts are aligned with common goals, ensuring steady progress toward a comprehensive human pan-genome. We invite and welcome collaboration with other research entities to achieve this shared vision. In summary, local initiatives such as SEN-GENOME are pivotal in bridging genomic disparities, offering pathways to equitable and inclusive genomic research. Collaborative endeavors guided by a collective vision for human health will propel us toward a more encompassing understanding of the human genome and better health through genomic medicine.

Ethno-Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (EthnoSTEM) Ideas in the Sama Mat-Weaving

Mat weaving has been culturally and economically significant among the Sama ethnolinguistic group since time immemorial. This study sought to find concepts and processes of ethnoscience, ethnotechnology, ethnoengineering, and ethnomathematics (ethnoSTEM) present in weaving tepo, a hand-woven mat of the Sama, made from indigenously processed leaves of pandan or screw pine (Pandanus tectorius). To determine ethnoSTEM ideas, concepts, and processes in tepo weaving, an ethnography was conducted involving five female mat weavers in a coastal village in Tawi-Tawi’s major producer of tepo, the Municipality of Tandubas. Data were gathered primarily through observations during a monthlong community immersion. Results revealed that Ethnotechnology tools were in the form of bolo, pandan-presser, pandan slitter, traditional stove, bamboo scalp scratcher, and other local cooking tools, with each tool exhibiting unique characteristics and functions needed for weaving. Ethnoengineering was evident in preparing pandan strips to create, bleach, and dye pandan strips for weaving and fastening the tepo. Ethnomathematics comprised primitive length measurement, arithmetic calculations, ratio and proportion, linear and quadratic equations, sinusoidal functions, basic geometric concepts, circles, symmetries, and isometries. Ethnoscience was observed in the processes determining the dyeability of pandan strips, as well as in the procedures employed in its softening and bleaching. It is concluded that the concepts and ideas of ethnoSTEM found in Sama weaving of tepo are loaded with scientific affluence that should be preserved to preclude them from fading to oblivion.

A - 81 Gender Bias in Collateral Informant Ratings of the Lawton & Brody Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale Varies by Ethnolinguistic Group

Abstract Objective Building on our prior work showing that sociocultural factors influence the nature of one’s daily activities and the degree of assistance rendered once cognitive difficulties emerge, the present study aimed to examine gender differences in the frequency of abnormal IADLS ratings [Not Applicable (N/A), Requires Assistance (R/A), Dependent] in cognitively healthy older adults from different ethnic (Hispanic vs. Non-Hispanic) and linguistic (English vs. Spanish) groups. Method Baseline data from 1060 healthy older adults [Non-Hispanic English-speakers (NE) = 597; Hispanic English-speakers (HE) = 249; Hispanic Spanish-speakers (HS) = 214] 50–90 years of age enrolled in the Texas Alzheimer’s Research and Care Consortium were analyzed using univariate analyses of variance and multivariate chi-squares within each ethnolinguistic group. Results Women obtained significantly (p < 0.001) higher IADLS total scores (indicative of greater impairment) than men in each ethnolinguistic group. A significant difference (p < 0.01) was found between gender across the sample for items related to Food Preparation, Housekeeping, and Laundry, wherein 7–25% of all men vs. < 1% of all women received “N/A” ratings. Significantly more HE men vs. women also received “N/A” ratings for Finances (4:1) and Medications (7:1), while a similar trend was observed in the NH and HS groups but did not reach statistical significance. No participants received an “N/A” rating and no significant gender differences were observed for remaining IADLs. Conclusion(s) Obtained findings highlight considerable gender bias on the Lawton & Brody IADLS in healthy older adults, which clearly limits the utility of this instrument in the provision of patient-centered neuropsychological services and may confound the interpretation of clinical trial outcomes.

Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the UBACC questionnaire in a multi-country psychiatric study in Africa

BackgroundThe University of California, San Diego Brief Assessment of Capacity to Consent (UBACC) is a tool to assess the capacity of participants to consent in psychiatric research. However, little is known about the psychometric properties in low and middle-income countries. This study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the UBACC. MethodsWe examined the reliability, latent factor structure, and item response of the first attempt of the UBACC items in a sample of 32,208 adults (16,467 individuals with psychosis and 15,741 controls) in Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, and Uganda; exploring these properties in the full sample and stratified by country, diagnostic status, sex, and ethnolinguistic language groups. ResultsExploratory factor analysis (EFA) suggested a two-factor model for the overall sample. However, a three-factor model was more appropriate when examining the latent structure across country, language, and sex. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) revealed an adequately fitting three-factor model for the full sample and across country, sex, and language. A two-factor model, however, was more appropriate for English and Amharic languages. Across all groups, the internal consistency of the UBACC was low, indicating below-threshold reliability (Cronbach's α (95 % CI = 0.58 (0.57–0.59). Using a multidimensional item-response theory framework for the full sample revealed that UBACC item 8, measuring understanding of the benefits of study participation, was the most discriminating item. Many of the other items had below-threshold discriminating characteristics. ConclusionEFA and CFA converged towards a two and three-dimensional structure for the UBACC, in line with the developers of the original scale. The differences in properties between populations and language groups, low internal consistency, and below-threshold item functioning suggest that investigations into the cultural and linguistic nuances are still warranted. Understanding the utility of consent tools, such as the UBACC, in underrepresented populations will be a part of the larger process which ensures that research participants are adequately protected.

Subaltern Geopolitics of Closed Borders: Russophone Minorities in Estonia and Finland

The article discusses how geopolitical discourses and related performative practices of bordersensitive groups in countries neighbouring Russia are transformed by the war in Ukraine. Based mainly on the mixture of ethnographic methods (semi-structured interviews and unprovoked talk), the article is built around the study of vernacular geopolitics of Russian speakers living in the city of Narva, Estonia, and Finland. It suggests that the geopolitical narrative of these ethnolinguistic groups is changing from subaltern, neither dominant nor resistant geopolitical imagination, to oppositional geopolitics. This transformation takes place through public expression in the form of creative performances (Estonia) or online and offline protests (Finland). In this way, Russian speakers seek to acquire a political agency, local (in the case of Estonia) or national (in the case of Finland).

Identity categories and colonial legacies in the British urban space

ABSTRACT This article advances conceptual debates regarding identity and marginalisation in valuable ways and informs methodological improvements for representation within data collection systems. It discusses findings from a study exploring the inclusion – and exclusion – of identity categories within official data collection exercises. A theme that emerged from the research was how intricacies present within the lived experiences of ethno-linguistic groups can be ignored through the application of broad – and more politically visible – identity categories, such as Muslim. Furthermore, some participants felt that identity categories were discouraged based on colonial legacies and British government priorities for diplomatic relations. One such identity category discussed here is Kashmiri, which despite an ongoing campaign for official recognition, remained absent from the list of ethnic categories used for quantifying populations in the United Kingdom. Furthermore, within the research findings, Somalis and Pashtuns were also highlighted as groups, who despite being recognised as distinct communities within the urban space and thus acknowledged categories of practice in daily interactions within neighbourhoods in the UK, remain ‘unofficial’.

Ethnomedicine, improved traditional medicine from Cocos nucifera water and evaluation of antibacterial activity on four bacterial strains in Center, Cameroon

Abstract. Lamy GML, Likeng JLN, Ndjib RC, Ndounga SEN, Elomo LB, Mbuh SM, Nnanga LS, Mahama, Biyon JBN, Harmsen K, Nga EN, Tchinda AT. 2024. Ethnomedicine, improved traditional medicine from Cocos nucifera water and evaluation of antibacterial activity on four bacterial strains in Center, Cameroon. Asian J Nat Prod Biochem 22: 27-34. In 2017, the WHO published its first list of “priority pathogens” resistant to antibiotics to combat growing antimicrobial resistance globally. These include bacteria that are multi-resistant to several antibiotics (Acinetobacter, Escherichia, etc.) and others (Salmonella, Shigella, etc.). Currently, research is focused on new antibiotics and medicinal plants are among the favored natural resources. Worldwide, Cocos nucifera water (Arecaceae) or coconut water, is traditionally reported to fight bacterial diseases. Unfortunately, information is lacking on its antibacterial potential in Center, Cameroon. The aim is to determine the traditional antibacterial uses of this water in Central, Cameroon. Then, transform this water into Improved Traditional Medicine (ITM). Finally, evaluate the antibacterial activity of ITM on 4 bacterial strains following the respective Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) of 0.015 and 0.25 µg/mL. The methods were ethnomedicinal surveys, the pre-formulation protocol of medicinal syrup, and sensitivity tests in liquid and solid media. Therefore, 76 informants belonging to several ethnolinguistic groups participated. Women (55.27%) exceed men (44.73%) traditionally used coconut water more to treat digestive disorders (stomachache and constipation). An antibacterial ITM named Coco Water Cure (CWC) was manufactured. The more sensitive Salmonella enteritidis and Shigella dysenteriae bacteria with CWC had an MIC of 0.25 µL/mL, respectively. In conclusion, coconut water containing actives compounds such as lauric acid is eligible among the natural antibiotic resources from Center, Cameroon.

The convergence of policy, commerce, and identity in the linguistic landscape of an Indian city

ABSTRACT This study investigates the complex interplay between language policy and linguistic landscape (LL) in the city of Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India. It highlights how local governmental policy advocating for Tamil prominence in public signage interfaces with the sociolinguistic realities of the city. Despite the policy directives emphasising Tamil, English retains a dominant role, suggesting an ongoing negotiation between language policy and practical language needs, particularly in the commercial sphere. This scenario suggests the city's response to global realities while preserving regional linguistic diversity. The presence of regional languages such as Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Bengali, and Hindi in Vellore's LL also reflects the city's multicultural character. The incorporation of these languages not only points to an inclusive language policy accommodating diverse communities but also contributes to the city's multicultural identity. The differential language use in top-down government-sponsored signs and bottom-up community-driven signs reveals the complexities associated with policy formulation and implementation in multilingual, multiethnic contexts. In conclusion, the study underscores the value of LL analysis as an effective tool for assessing the ground-level impact of language policy, illuminating the power relations among languages, the status of various ethnolinguistic groups, and the effect of commercialisation on language use.

Philippine and South African Experiences on Folk Literature Research: Relevance, Gains, and Challenges

Folkloric studies have accelerated in the Philippines and South Africa because the Academe acknowledged the urgency to collect, preserve, and publish the oral traditions of indigenous communities. Oral traditions embody the history, values, and world views of these indigenous cultures, which need to be preserved for posterity. This paper discusses the relevance, gains, and challenges in conducting folklore research in the Philippines and South Africa, which share similarities, including their colonial pasts and number of indigenous communities. The paper contemplates the relevance of folklore research outputs in different fields thereby contributing to the discourse on the value of folklore research. This qualitative study uses textual analysis to focus on insights related to folklore research, using secondary data including journal articles, book publications, and textual references. The study reveals that although there is extensive research in the field of folklore in both countries, there remain gaps that need to be filled, such as the collection, preservation, and recognition of representative folklore from other regions and cultural communities. South Africa, for instance, has 12 official languages, and the Philippines has 110 ethnolinguistic groups. There are still languages and indigenous oral traditions that are developing, and folk literature that needs to be recorded, preserved, and published. These oral traditions/folk literature play an important role in revealing people’s cultural identities and preserving heritage, which is imperative in nation-building. The findings highlight the importance of continuing research about folklore and the need to preserve indigenous knowledge systems When written down and published, folklore becomes tangible and preserved for posterity, providing present and future generations the opportunity to learn, understand, and appreciate their cultural legacy.

CHALLENGES AND BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANCHU EMBROIDERY AS A TOURISM SOUVENIR PRODUCT IN JILIN CITY

There is a unique type of embroidery in Jilin called Manchu embroidery. The Manchu is an ethno-linguistic group in northeast China. The town of Ula Manchu is located in Jilin City and has a history of more than 600 years. It is one of the important birthplaces of the Manchu people. It still retains Manchu cuisine from the Qing Dynasty, which has become an important tourist resource. Meanwhile, Jilin City also has a famous international ski resort. Every year, tourists from all over the world look forward to the food and specialties of Ula Street Manchu Town. Current Manchu embroidery souvenir products are misleading in terms of cultural expression product development. Given the potential of Manchu embroidery souvenirs to improve the local tourism economy and the recognition of this ethnic culture, this study aims to identify the unsuitable pattern categories in its Manchu embroidery culture for development as tourism products and to assess the business opportunities and challenging environment for developing Manchu embroidery. This study adopts a qualitative method to identify the potential and obstacles of developing Manchu embroidery into a tourism product. At the same time, it provides more thinking about the material culture protection methods of the Ula Manchu. This study adds to the literature on the Ula Manchu and can be used as a solution to the problem of indigenous tourism. industry-related issues that can be addressed with the support of policy interventions.

Cognatic portrait of the indigenous languages of Tabuk City, Kalinga, Philippines

Tabuk City in Kalinga, Philippines is a melting pot of diverse ethnolinguistic groups. Kalinga alone is known for its unique 46 ethnic groups, which include nine (9) in the locale of Tabuk City - Biga, Culminga, Dallak, Ga’dang, Guilayon, Malbong, Minanga, Nanong, and Tobog. Observations tell that these indigenous languages profess similarities that members of these groups do understand each other though they make use of their own indigenous language. 
 Hence, the study aimed to portray the linguistic cognates among the indigenous languages in Tabuk City, Kalinga. Specifically, the study found that there are cognates among the indigenous languages in Tabuk City as to lexical, morphological, and syntactic features. As to lexical features, there are cognates in the categories of counting numbers, pronouns, body parts, living things, and non-living things. On morphological features, there are cognates as to word formation processes, while as to syntactic features, cognates are found in the resemblances in sentence structures among the identified indigenous languages. Significantly, the study provides reference material for Mother-tongue teachers in teaching indigenous languages.
 Finally, the study illustrates in a cognate map that Malbong, Nanong, Minanga, and Tobog indigenous languages denote higher resemblances as compared to the cognates among Biga, Culminga, Dallak, Guilayon, and Ga’dang.

Socioeconomic Advantage or Community Attachment? A Register‐Based Study on the Difference in National Lutheran Church Affiliation Between Finnish and Swedish Speakers in Finland

AbstractSecularization theory has been challenged by research showing religious persistence and upswing in contexts across the world. In Europe, particularly in highly secular and historically religiously homogeneous Nordic settings, there has been little research, and representative data for minority groups are rare. We offer a pioneering study using national register data to study religious changes over the past five decades in Finland, where the two native ethnolinguistic groups—Finnish and Swedish speakers—offer a unique study context. We use register data with yearly information on every individual's religious affiliation to compare the two groups, exploring the mechanisms behind any differentials. Swedish speakers are found to be consistently more affiliated with the National Lutheran Church than Finnish speakers. This finding contradicts the expectation of modernization theory because the Swedish‐speaking population is, in some aspects, socioeconomically advantaged in Finnish society. The higher affiliation level of Swedish speakers can be partly explained by lower levels of internal migration, which is possibly driven by stronger community attachment. Our results suggest that community cohesion may help preserve the religious tradition of a minority group, even in the absence of socioeconomic disadvantages or threats from the majority.

Hausa’s Ascent in Public Domains and the Fate of Kataf Cluster Languages

This study investigated language use in public domains among communities speaking Kataf cluster languages, focusing on the emerging trend of increased use of Hausa and the implications. Guided by theories on language endangerment and multilingualism, the quantitative research design was adopted to investigate the phenomenon. A sub-section of a structured questionnaire (complemented by open-ended interviews) was used as instrument(s) to generate the required data. The native speakers of the cluster’s member languages were the research population. In keeping with the scientific research procedure, purposive random sampling was used as the technique to select five hundred persons as the research informants, as it was not possible to reach all the persons that constituted the research population. The sample comprised fifty persons from each of the ten ethnolinguistic groups covered by the research (i.e. 50 persons x 10 groups = 500 informants). The desire to select more enlightened persons who could read in-between the lines, i.e. persons who knew the way language use practices should ideally be and understood how such practices appeared among the focused communities, was the rationale for employing the chosen sampling technique. Thus, the sample comprised educated males and females between the ages of 18 and 45 years, mostly civil servants (teachers, administrators, etc.) that possessed the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) or equivalents as minimum educational qualification. Descriptive statistics in the form of frequency and percentage distributions were employed as the mode of data analysis. The data analyzed in tables (1) to (5) not only revealed a gradual decline in the use of Kataf cluster languages in public settings in favour of Hausa but also provided strong evidence for the endangerment of the affected languages, highlighting potential consequences for cultural identity, community cohesion, and wider linguistic diversity.

Kinship, heritage, and ethnic choice: ethnolinguistic registration across four generations in contemporary Finland

Abstract We studied how individuals’ ethnolinguistic affiliation relates to the ethnolinguistic structure of kinship in contemporary Finland, a society in which Finnish-speaking and Swedish-speaking ethnolinguistic groups have coexisted for centuries and mixed marital unions are common. Using multigenerational data from the population register, we determined how the ethnolinguistic registration of children born in 1990–2015 relates to three generations of ancestors. We created a family tree that links children to their parents, four grandparents and eight great grandparents. Our intention was to both map the ethnolinguistic background of young people and predict a child’s affiliation based on their ancestry. The data revealed that ethnolinguistic affiliation is a more fluid and complex feature than expected when assessed only through child and parental characteristics. We found substantial diversity in ethnolinguistic background within the Swedish-speaking minority group, while most individuals in the Finnish-speaking majority group had a uniform background. We identified three types of bias in the ethnolinguistic affiliation of mixed-origin children: a matrilineal bias, a kinship majority bias and a Swedish ethnic minority bias. The analyses advanced our understanding of how the size of minority groups can shrink even when most couples in mixed unions favour minority group affiliation for their children.

JOURNEY IN HERITAGE LANGUAGE PRESERVATION: VOICES OF THE KAGAN SPEAKERS

The emergence and embracement of immigrant languages threaten indigenous languages to be neglected resulting to become extinct. This qualitative study aimed to gather the oral literature and analyze the morphosemantic features of the Kagan language in Hagonoy, Davao del Sur to help preserve the language and the culture of the tribe which has gradually vanished because of assimilation with people of different culture and language. Kagan elders whose ages ranging from 46 to 92 years old were the informants, with nine assigned for the FGD and 14 for the IDI. Results revealed that Kagan’s preserved oral literature consists of prayer, lyric poetry, and poem. It also divulged that Kagan language is rich of distinct characteristics in terms of its morphology and semantics. The retrieved oral literatures’ morphological features include affixes, verb tenses, pronouns, descriptive adjectives, adverbs, and conjunctions. The semantic features are the deictic expressions, denotative words, connotative words, symbols, synonymy, antonymy, and dialectal words. Further, results of the study would provide essential information on the morphosemantic features which convey the existence of an ethnolinguistic group that bears its distinct cultural heritage. KEYWORDS: Education, Applied Linguistics, Kagan language, phenomenology, morphosemantic features, Philippines.

A Regional Perspective of Socio-Ecological Predictors for Fruit and Nut Tree Varietal Diversity Maintained by Farmer Communities in Central Asia

The five independent countries of Central Asia, namely Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, contain one of the richest areas in the world for the specific and intraspecific diversity of temperate fruit and nut tree species. Research was carried out via the collaboration of national research and education institutes with local community-based agencies and farmer communities. Raw data (2014 observations) for almond, apple, apricot, cherry plum, currant, grapevine, pear, pomegranate, and walnut were collected at the household (HH) level across the five countries: Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan. A set of models was used, including household variety richness as the dependent variable, to understand the influence of socio-ecological variables on the amount and distribution of crop varietal diversity in the farmers’ production systems. Four variables were included as explanatory variables of variety richness (fixed factors): ecoregion, ethno-linguistic group, management, and abiotic stress. The results show clear evidence that abiotic stress determines a higher richness of intra-specific diversity in the form of local varieties grown by farmers living in climatically unfavorable areas. The results for the studied ecoregions follow the same trend, with ecoregions with harsher conditions displaying a higher positive correlation with diversity. Mild environments such as the Central Asian riparian woodlands show an unexpectedly lower diversity than other harsher ecoregions. Ethno-linguistic groups also have an effect on the level of varietal diversity used, related to both historic nomadic practices and a culture of harvesting wild fruit and nuts in mountainous areas. The home garden management system hosts a higher diversity compared to larger production systems such as orchards. In Central Asia, encouraging the cultivation of local varieties of fruit and nut trees provides a key productive and resilient livelihood strategy for farmers living under the harsh environmental conditions of the region while providing a unique opportunity to conserve a genetic heritage of global importance.

Sperm whale clans and human societies.

Sperm whale society is structured into clans that are primarily distinguished by vocal dialects, which may be symbolic markers of clan identity. However, clans also differ in non-vocal behaviour. These distinctive behaviours, as well as clan membership itself, are learned socially, largely within matrilines. The clans can contain thousands of whales and span thousands of kilometres. Two or more clans typically use an area, but the whales only socialize with members of their own clan. In many respects the closest parallel may be the ethno-linguistic groups of humans. Patterns and processes of human prehistory that may be instructive in studying sperm whale clans include: the extreme variability of human societies; no clear link between modes of resource acquisition and social structure; that patterns of vocalizations may not map well onto other behavioural distinctions; and that interacting societies may deliberately distinguish their behaviour (schismogenesis). Conversely, while the two species and their societies are very different, the existence of very large-scale social structures in both sperm whales and humans supports some primary drivers of the phenomenon that are common to both species (such as cognition, cooperation, culture and mobility) and contraindicates others (e.g. tool-making and syntactic language).