Ethnic-racial Identity Exploration Research Articles

Cultural Socialization and Ethnic-Racial Identity Mediated by Positive and Negative Conversations about Race: Exploring Differences among Asian American, African American, Latinx, Multiracial, and White Students

ABSTRACT The current study examined associations between cultural socialization and ethnic-racial identity via positive and negative conversations about one’s ethnicity/race. Ethnic-racial differences between Asian American, African American, Latinx, Multiracial, and White students were explored. College students 18–22 (M age = 18.46) participating in a university-wide study provided self-reports of childhood cultural socialization, engagement in conversations about ethnicity/race during college, and ethnic-racial identity. Cultural socialization was associated with more positive conversations about race, and, in turn, greater ethnic-racial identity exploration, resolution, and affirmation among all students. Additionally, among Multiracial and African American students, cultural socialization was associated with greater negative conversations about race and, in turn, less ethnic-racial identity affirmation. Although cultural socialization was not associated with negative conversations about race for Asian American, Latinx, or White students, the relation between greater negative conversations about race and less ethnic-racial identity affirmation was significant. Negative conversations about race also informed greater ethnic-racial identity exploration among all students, but was not associated with ethnic-racial identity resolution. The current study highlights the nuanced ways that childhood cultural socialization and conversations about one’s ethnicity/race influence college students’ ethnic-racial identity, both similarly and differently among different racial groups.

The individual development of cultural identity and psychological well-being among adolescents with a migrant background in Austria: A longitudinal study.

Research has shown that cultural identity and psychological well-being are associated. We suggest that negative stereotypes challenge the psychological well-being of people with a migrant background. This research focused on the dynamics of adolescents' ethnic/racial identity (ERI), national identity, stereotype vulnerability, and psychological well-being on the individual level. The study was conducted in Austria over the course of one school year, providing insights on developmental implications of cultural identity for adolescents with a migrant background in Europe. The sample consisted of 317 (T1) adolescents with a migrant background, recruited at Austrian high schools (age: M = 15.19, SD = 1.11; 233 female; ethnic background: mainly Turkey and Ex-Yugoslavian countries). Longitudinal data from a three-wave study were analyzed by means of a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model. Within-person effects provided a better explanation than the between-person approach. Within-person processes suggest that higher levels of ERI commitment and higher national identity predict higher levels of psychological well-being at a later time point, whereas higher levels of ERI exploration and higher stereotype vulnerability predict lower levels of psychological well-being. At the between-person level, findings indicate a positive correlation between ERI exploration and stereotype vulnerability. The cultural identity and psychological well-being of adolescents with a migrant background fluctuate over time, influenced by the social context. Stereotype vulnerability contributes to lower levels of psychological well-being among adolescents with a migrant background in Austria. Our findings highlight the necessity to partition the variance of constructs to avoid confounding of between-person and within-person effects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The Influence of Ethnic-Racial Identity Developmental Processes on Global Bicultural Competence Development.

This study investigated ethnic-racial identity (ERI) developmental processes (i.e., exploration and resolution) as pathways for adolescents to develop global bicultural competence, or the ability to meet heritage and host cultural demands. The sample included 749 U.S. Mexican-origin youth (30% Mexico-born; 51% male) followed from early-to-late adolescence (Mage = 12.79-17.38 years). Longitudinal structural equationanalyses revealed that youth's sequential engagement in ERI exploration and resolution (from early-to-middle adolescence) promoted global bicultural competence in late adolescence. The findings highlight the benefits of achieving clarity about one's ERI via self-exploration efforts for adolescents' ability to respond effectively to bicultural demands. This study advances mechanisms via which ERI development may support youth adaptation to multiple cultural systems.

Understanding Ethnic-Racial Identity in a Context Where “Race” Is Taboo

ABSTRACT Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) is an important aspect of youth development and has been wellstudied for the last several decades. One issue less discussed is how the construct of ERI translates across different countries and cultures. The purpose of our paper is to describe the sociohistorical context of Germany and implications for the study of ethnic-racial identity in Europe. We discuss the German adaption of the Identity Project, an 8-week school-based ethnic-racial identity exploration intervention developed in the United States. We use this as a concrete example of how we thought through the focal construct of ERI to figure out how and whether it is a salient social identity category for youth in Germany where, in response to the history of racially motivated genocide, discussions of “race” are taboo. Digging into the ways ERI may not be directly transferable to different contexts can help us understand its nature as a socially constructed identity with real-life implications. Our hope with this paper is to further discussion, question our conceptualizations, and acknowledge how a detailed understanding of sociohistorical contexts is needed for the study of ERI.

The mediation process between Latino youths' family ethnic socialization, ethnic-racial identity, and academic engagement: Moderation by ethnic-racial discrimination?

Guided by García Coll and colleagues' (1996) integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children, the current study examined the role of ethnic-racial identity as a mediator through which family ethnic socialization was associated with academic engagement among Latino youth. Furthermore, based on the high prevalence rates of ethnic-racial discrimination among Latino adolescents, the associations between experiences with peer and adult discrimination and youth's academic engagement (controlling for family ethnic socialization and ethnic-racial identity) were tested. Finally, we tested whether discrimination from either peers or adults moderated the mediation process between family ethnic socialization, ethnic-racial identity, and academic engagement. Data were collected from a cross-sectional study of adolescents in the Southwestern United States. Participants in the current study consisted of self-identified Latino adolescents (N = 370; Mage = 16.14 years; SD = 1.12; Range = 14-18; 52.8% female; 96.2% U.S.-born) who completed self-administered surveys during school hours. Path analyses indicated that family ethnic socialization was indirectly associated with academic engagement via ethnic-racial identity. Adult discrimination was negatively associated with academic engagement; however, peer discrimination was not associated with academic engagement. Finally, neither source of discrimination emerged as a moderator of the associations of interest. Findings point to Latino youth's enhanced resilience against discrimination encounters when they have more experiences with family ethnic socialization and have engaged in greater ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Examination of ethnic racial identity exploration and commitment in emerging adults: Group comparisons and specific features of multiracial identity

Objective: Building on existing literature on ethnic/racial identity in emerging adulthood, we compared between-group differences for Multiracial and Monoracial participants and relevant within-group relationships for Multiracial participants. Participants: Participants were college students (n = 888; 67% women; Mage = 21.7; SD = 5.58) categorized into three groups: Monoracial White (61%), Multiracial (17%), and Monoracial Minoritized (22%). Methods: Measures included ethnic racial identity (ERI) exploration and commitment, discrimination, and features of Multiracial identity. The survey was sent through campus email and completed electronically. Results: Monoracial Minoritized participants reported higher discrimination and ERI commitment and exploration than Multiracial and Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants reported higher ERI exploration and discrimination than Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants’ ERI exploration and racial conflict explained ERI commitment in regression models. Conclusions: Multiracial individuals should be researched and intervened with differentially from other racial groups, with variables specific to their unique experiences.

Adolescents' ethnic-racial centrality moderates effect of school-based intervention on ethnic-racial identity exploration.

Research suggests that the process of adolescents exploring and developing clarity about their ethnic-racial identity (ERI) is an important developmental competency. However, the extent to which individuals view their ERI as central to their overall self-concept (i.e., ERI centrality) informs the degree to which they choose to explore their ERI, potentially moderating ERI development. Utilizing data from a randomized controlled trial of a school-based intervention focused on increasing adolescents' ERI exploration, the current study examined whether the intervention effect was moderated by adolescents' baseline ERI centrality. Study participants (N = 218; Mage = 15.02; 49% female; 63% ethnic-racial minority; 28% free/reduced lunch) attended a high school in the southwest United States. Moderation analyses indicated that adolescents' ERI centrality at baseline (1-week pretest) significantly moderated the intervention's effect on Time-2 ERI exploration (12-week posttest). Further analyses of simple slopes revealed that the intervention produced significant increases in Time-2 ERI exploration (relative to attention control) for adolescents with average and higher (+1 SD) levels of ERI centrality at baseline, but not for those with lower levels of ERI centrality at baseline (-1 SD), which suggests ERI centrality may have encouraged participant engagement with the intervention. Sensitivity analyses accounting for baseline to posttest changes in ERI exploration and examining long-term effects of the intervention on exploration provided additional support for the specificity of this moderated intervention effect to the 12-week posttest. Our findings are consistent with notions from social identity theory as well as previous research that suggests that ERI centrality encourages ERI exploration among adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Sex differences in how ethnic-racial identity informs first coital affect and virginity beliefs among Black college students

Objective: The present study examined whether ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration, resolution, and affirmation informed individuals’ beliefs about virginity (ie, virginity as a gift, stigma, process) and first coital affective reactions (FCAR; ie, positive and negative), and whether these relations varied by biological sex. Participants and method: The sample consisted of 184 Black college students (M age = 19.79, SD = 2.08) enrolled in a large Southern university. Participants completed a virginity beliefs measure, first coital affective reaction measure, and an ethnic-racial identity measure. Results: Findings indicated that for Black females, greater ERI exploration was associated with decreased virginity as a gift beliefs; and ERI resolution was associated with increased virginity as a gift beliefs. Additionally, for Black males and females, ERI affirmation resulted in more positive FCAR, less negative FCAR, and less views of virginity as a stigma. Conclusion: Finding implications are presented in the context of future research.

Mexican-origin youth's ethnic-racial identity development: The role of siblings.

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) formation is an important developmental task. Although families are a primary context for ERI socialization, little is known about siblings' role. Accordingly, we applied the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model to longitudinal data from 2 siblings to examine the links between siblings' ERI exploration, resolution, and affirmation. Participants were Mexican-origin mothers, fathers, and 2 siblings (older siblings Mage = 20.65 years; younger siblings Mage = 17.72 years) from 246 families in Arizona who were interviewed on 2 occasions across 2 years. Siblings' ERI exploration in late adolescence positively predicted young adult ERI, accounting for mothers' and fathers' ERIs. For resolution, the sibling (i.e., partner) effect was moderated by sibling gender constellation, such that the sibling effect emerged only for same-sex dyads. For affirmation, the sibling effect emerged for older but not younger siblings. These findings highlight the need to understand siblings' role in ERI and to expand research on family socialization of ERI beyond parents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Ethnic-Racial Identity in Action: Structure and Content of Friends’ Conversations about Ethnicity and Race

ABSTRACT Among emerging adults, peers are central to ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration, acting as primary interlocuters in discussions about ethnicity and race. Although ERI development is understood as adaptive, particularly for young people of color, ethnicity and race related conversations are often highly charged, and can consist of both positive, self-affirming exchanges, as well as negative experiences of identity denial, disinterest, and discrimination. The valence of such conversations, and their role in ERI development, may relate both to what is being said and how the conversation is structured. The current study examines in vivo, unguided conversations between 36 friend pairs coded for mention of ethnicity and race (N = 64 individuals; 56% women, 75% born in the United States, M age = 20.54, SD = 2.73; ethnic composition: n = 11 ethnic-racial minority (EM)-EM, n = 14 EM-White, n = 9 White-White). Based on a two-step qualitative analysis, we found wide variation in conversation content and structure. Despite no differences in the length of ethnicity and race related discussion, the types of stories told were shaped starkly by ethnic-racial inequality, discrimination, and the largely segregated experiences of White students. We discuss our findings in light of the little investigated link between ERI exploration and maladaptive psychosocial outcomes.

Contextual Moderators of a School-Based Ethnic-Racial Identity Intervention: The Roles of Family Ethnic Socialization and Ethnic-Racial Background.

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) formation is a key developmental competency that contributes to adolescents' sense of self and psychosocial adjustment. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) has demonstrated the efficacy of a universal school-based health promotion intervention program to positively influence adolescents' ERI exploration and ERI resolution, compared to an attention control curriculum that was delivered by the same facilitators, had equivalent contact hours, and focused on post-secondary career and educational options. The current study extended prior tests of the RCT to better understand (a) how intervention-based ERI changes unfolded over two phases-temporally proximal pre- to post-test effects and long-term post-test effects across a 1-year follow-up period, and (b) identify for whom the intervention was more effective by testing theorized contextual moderators-baseline family ethnic socialization practices and youth ethnic-racial background (i.e., White majority vs. ethnic-racial minority). Bilinear spline growth models were used to examine longitudinal ERI trajectories in intervention and control groups across four survey assessments (baseline, 12weeks, 18weeks, 67weeks; N = 215; Mage = 15.02; 49.1% female; 62.6% ethnic-racial minority). In support of an additive effect for the role of families in school-based interventions, post-test ERI exploration significantly increased (relative to thecontrol group) to a greater extent for youth with higher (compared to lower) baseline levels of family ethnic socialization. ERI resolution significantly increased from pre- to post-test for ethnic-racial minority youth and also increased across the 1-year follow-up period for White youthin the intervention. These results highlight family ethnic socialization as a developmental asset for school-based ERI interventions and demonstrate differential pathways by which such interventions support ERI development for ethnic-racial minority and majority adolescents.

Inter-Relations Between Ethnic-Racial Discrimination and Ethnic-Racial Identity Among Early Adolescents.

The authors examined whether the longitudinal inter-relations between ethnic-racial discrimination and ethnic-racial identity vary according to the perpetrator of discrimination. The authors used three waves of data from early adolescents (n=387; ages 11-12 at Wave 1) to assess the strength and direction of relations between perceived discrimination from non-school adults and peers vis-à-vis ethnic-racial identity exploration, commitment, private regard, and public regard. Cross-lagged autoregressive path analyses showed that more frequent discrimination, regardless of source, had reciprocal and significant longitudinal inter-relations with exploration and public regard. Peer discrimination predicted lower commitment and private regard 1year later, whereas non-school adult discrimination did not. Implications are discussed in relation to the role of peers and ethnic-racial identity processes.

Associations between ethnic-racial identity and alcohol problems among diverse emerging adults

Excessive alcohol use and problems during college is a major public health concern, and there are health disparities in patterns of drinking and alcohol-related illnesses based on ethnicity and race. Given the prevalence and disparities in excessive alcohol use and problems and associated negative impacts, it is important to examine potential protective factors such as dimensions of ethnic-racial identity (ERI). Thus, the current study examined how multiple dimensions of ERI were associated with alcohol use and alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms, and how these relations varied by individuals’ ethnic-racial group among 1850 diverse emerging adults (M = 18.46, SD = .38). Findings indicated that there were significant differences by race/ethnicity. ERI affirmation was negatively associated with AUD symptoms for Asian individuals and African American individuals, while ERI exploration was positively associated with AUD symptoms among African American individuals. ERI resolution was negatively associated with alcohol use for Latinx individuals and positively associated with alcohol use for Multiracial individuals. Among White individuals, ERI exploration was negatively associated with alcohol use and ERI affirmation was negatively associated with AUD symptoms. Overall, the current study builds on our understanding of nuanced ways in which ethnic-racial identity impacts alcohol problems among emerging adults and highlights areas for future research.

School-Based Social-Emotional Learning and Ethnic-Racial Identity Among African American and Latino Adolescents

This study sheds light on the interrelations of universal, school-based social-emotional learning strategies and ethnic-racial identity over time. We assessed exposure to social-emotional learning practices and ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution among 367 middle school students (70% African American, 30% Latinx; 51% girls) across 3 years. The results of a latent growth model with social-emotional learning practices as a time-varying covariate suggest that practices that afford youth opportunities for autonomy, prosocial behavioral routines, and collaboration in the context of homerooms (advisories) and classrooms were consistently associated with greater ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution across the middle school years. Theoretical and practical implications for the potential of school-based social-emotional learning to support the development of cultural assets such as ethnic-racial identity are discussed.

Inherently Political? Associations of Parent Ethnic-Racial Socialization and Sociopolitical Discussions with Latinx Youths' Emergent Civic Engagement.

The current study expands on ethnic–racial socialization (ERS) among Latinx families to include sociopolitical discussions as a way to better understand how these practices relate to adolescents’ developmental outcomes, including their ethnic–racial identity (ERI) and their sociopolitical development. More specifically, we examined whether there were direct links between parental ERS practices and sociopolitical discussions at home and adolescents’ emergent participatory citizenship via their ERI processes (i.e., exploration and resolution). These questions were examined using path analyses with 267 self‐identified Latinx early adolescents (M age = 11.88, SD = 1.22; girls = 54.3%). Results revealed direct associations between sociopolitical discussions and cultural socialization at home with civic accountability. Thus, youth whose parents had engaged in more discussions with them about current political issues and who taught them about their ethnic heritage and history endorsed a greater sense of collective responsibility for helping community members in need. Additionally, preparation for bias and sociopolitical discussions at home were each uniquely associated with more ERI exploration, and each was also indirectly associated with expectations for future community involvement via youths’ ERI exploration. Our findings come at a critical juncture in time, providing insight into ways we can support the positive ERI development and build the civic capacity of Latinx adolescents.

Testing invariance of ethnic-racial discrimination and identity measures for adolescents across ethnic-racial groups and contexts.

Ethnic-racial discrimination experiences, ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development, and attitudes toward other ethnic-racial group contact all make important contributions to individuals' health and well-being. Absent from the literature is systematic examination of whether these constructs may be measured equivalently for adolescents from different ethnic-racial groups living in different contexts. In 2 large ethno-racially diverse samples of high school students in the Southwestern (N = 2,136) and Midwestern (N = 1,055) United States, the current study tested invariance of 4 widely used measures, including Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index (Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000), Ethnic Identity Scale-Brief (Douglass & Umaña-Taylor, 2015), Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity-Teen (Scottham, Sellers, & Nguyên, 2008), and Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-Other Group Orientation (Phinney, 1992). Results from multigroup confirmatory factor analyses supported configural and metric but not scalar invariance across Asian, Black, Latinx, Native, and White American adolescents, and across geographic regions for Asian, Black, and White American adolescents. Results demonstrate the utility of these measures to examine whether associations with theoretically related constructs differ across groups and regions, but specific items preclude mean-level group difference tests for certain groups. Supporting convergent validity across ethno-racially diverse adolescents in 2 regions, scores on ethnic-racial discrimination from peers, adults in school, and other adults in society were each positively associated with depressive symptoms; ERI exploration, resolution, affirmation, centrality, and public regard scores were each positively associated with self-esteem; and other group orientation scores were positively associated with ERI achievement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The Development of Ethnic-Racial Identity Process and Its Relation to Civic Beliefs among Latinx and Black American Adolescents.

Despite associations between ethnic-racial identity processes (i.e., exploration and resolution) and positive psychosocial outcomes among adolescents, limited empirical research investigates longitudinal associations between these processes and civic beliefs. To address this gap in the literature, this research explored whether changes in ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution predicted civic beliefs among adolescents. Participants included 400 Latinx (n = 121; 47.1% girls) and Black American (n = 279; 52.0% girls) adolescents in the 6th (n = 210), 7th (n = 113) and 8th Grades (n = 74). Neither initial levels nor changes in ethnic-racial identity exploration predicted civic beliefs across four time-points of the study, or across two years of middle school. Adolescents who demonstrated greater increases in ethnic-racial identity resolution across two years of middle school were likely to have greater civic beliefs by the end of the two years, as compared to adolescents who had smaller increases in resolution. These results suggest that adolescents who have an increasingly clear sense of their ethnic-racial selves may have greater access to cognitive and socioemotional resources that promote their development of beliefs on the need to advance the well-being of their communities.

Perceptions of pubertal timing relative to peers: Comparison targets and social contexts of comparison.

In studies measuring pubertal timing multiple ways, perceived timing relative to peers is more strongly associated with adverse outcomes in girls. However, girls' comparison targets (those to whom they compare) and the contexts in which comparison occurs is unclear. This study examined perceived relative pubertal timing to identify the comparison target (ethnicity-race) and the contexts (schools, neighborhoods) of these comparisons. We assessed perceived relative pubertal timing in a diverse sample of 511 late-adolescent girls aged 17-19 years (49% White) recruited from a range of U.S. universities. Girls more often made in-group comparisons. Latina, Asians, and Middle Easterners were more likely to use White comparisons than Blacks. Latinas also more often used Black comparisons, and Latina and Whites more often used Asian comparisons. Early developers (collapsed across ethnicity-race) more often used Latina and Black comparisons. There were no significant differences based on ethnicity-race or pubertal timing groups on the context of comparisons. The study findings support the similarity hypothesis tenet of social comparison theory, such that most girls compare their development with other girls within their own ethnic-racial group, and limited out-group comparisons occur. Moreover, comparison contexts often take place in classrooms/schools. Given research is scant regarding the mechanisms that link puberty and negative outcomes, this study offers new insights into potential social mechanisms for future research to explore. Greater attention might be placed on ethnic-racial identity exploration and critical media literacy to help pubertal girls explore the role of media in their identity development and body ideal. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Ethnic-racial discrimination experiences and ethnic-racial identity predict adolescents’ psychosocial adjustment: Evidence for a compensatory risk-resilience model

Theory and empirical evidence indicate that ethnic-racial discrimination serves as a risk factor for adolescents’ psychosocial adjustment, whereas ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development promotes positive youth adjustment and can mitigate the negative outcomes of discrimination-related risk. In Colombia, the legacies of an ethnic-racial hierarchy, mestizaje ideology (i.e., the assumption that everyone is racially mixed), and contemporary multiculturalism education reforms create a unique context for understanding adolescents’ experiences of ethnic-racial discrimination, ERI development, and their implications for psychosocial adjustment. In this study of Colombian adolescents (N = 462; Mage = 15.90 years; 47.3% female), almost 40% of participants reported experiencing ethnic-racial-based discrimination. Experiencing more frequent ethnic-racial discrimination was associated with lower self-esteem and higher depressive symptoms, whereas higher ERI resolution (i.e., gaining sense of clarity about ethnic-racial group membership) and affirmation (i.e., feeling positively about ethnic-racial group membership) were associated with higher self-esteem and lower depressive symptoms. ERI exploration (i.e., learning history and gaining knowledge about ethnic-racial group membership) was also associated with higher self-esteem and moderated the association between discrimination and depressive symptoms, such that this association was stronger at higher compared to lower levels of ERI exploration. Findings provide novel evidence for ethnic-racial-related risk and resilience processes among Colombian youth.

Discrimination and Sleep Mediate Ethnic/Racial Identity and Adolescent Adjustment: Uncovering Change Processes With Slope-as-Mediator Mediation.

This study employs slope-as-mediator techniques to explore how the daily association between ethnic/racial discrimination and sleep disturbances serves as an intermediary link between ethnic/racial identity (ERI) and psychological adjustment. In a diverse sample of 264 adolescents (Mage =14.3years old, 70% female, 76% United States born, 25% African American, 32% Asian American, 43% Latinx), discrimination was associated with sleep disturbance. Furthermore, ERI commitment buffered the impact of discrimination on sleep, whereas ERI exploration exacerbated the impact of discrimination. Finally, the daily level association between discrimination and sleep (i.e., daily slope) mediated the association between ERI and adolescent adjustment. Substantive links between discrimination and sleep are discussed as well as broader applications of slope-as-mediator techniques.