Ethnic Socialization Research Articles

Ethnic Socialization in Current and Prospective Parents

Few studies have examined whether the manner in which one has been parented impacts one’s subsequent parenting style regarding ethnic socialization. We examined this question in current and prospective parents. First, we found that receiving greater familial ethnic socialization is significantly correlated with stronger subsequent parental ethnic socialization (PES) for both current and prospective parents. Second, we found that PES did not significantly differ between current and prospective parents. Third, given the limited research examining the ethnic socialization experiences of those who are White, we examined these questions specifically for our White participants. Our findings persisted when we examined all ethnicities together and when we examined White participants alone.

КЛУБНЫЕ СООБЩЕСТВА В СИСТЕМЕ ФАКТОРОВ ФОРМИРОВАНИЯ ЭТНОКУЛЬТУРНОЙ ИДЕНТИЧНОСТИ ПОДРОСТКОВ

The author of the article turns to the socio-pedagogical analysis of club communities and their socializing potential in the process of ethnic socialization of the young generation of modern Russian society. Socio-pedagogical support of the process of ethnic socialization of adolescents and youth requires the integration of the efforts of various subjects of social education, among which club communities have established themselves as an effective means of including young citizens in socially useful activities, social relations, and the formation of a wide range of socially significant personal qualities of pupils. The strengthening of migration flows creates a special socio-cultural situation in Russia in which adolescents have to integrate into a polycultural, polyethnic environment. Thus, socialization carries potential risks and threats associated with the rejection of «others», their alienation, the growth of nationalism, xenophobia, racial and religious intolerance among adolescents and youth. The author cites the results of his own research into the process of forming the ethno-cultural identity of adolescents, the conditions for realizing the socializing potential of club activities in this process, reflects on the possibilities of anticipating the development of a negative attitude of adolescents towardsrepresentatives of «other» peoples and cultures. The article presents the results of the empirical study, during which the features of the ethnocultural identity of adolescents were analyzed in connection with the involvement in the activities of various club communities. Using a representative sample, the author shows the changes that have occurred in the structure of the ethnocultural identity of adolescents involved in the activities of club communities. The author pays special attention to the need for competent psychological and pedagogical support of the process of adolescents’ ethnic socialization in multiethnic environment, using the socializing potential of reference adolescent and youth communities, enhancing the involvement of schools and families in ensuring the formation of ethnocultural identity of modern adolescents. The research materials can be used in the activities of educational psychologists, heads of educational organizations, and are of interest to researchers studying the problems of ethnic socialization, multicultural education, socio-pedagogical and socio-psychological problems of adolescent and youth communities.

Familial and Parental Ethnic Socialization Within Majority, Minority, and Multiracial Groups

As ethnic diversity grows within the United States, so does the need for understanding ethnic identity (EI), which develops through ethnic socialization (ES). In a family context, this is known as familial ethnic socialization (FES), whereas parental ethnic socialization (PES) refers to ethnically socializing one’s children. This study explores differences and similarities in EI, FES, and PES between ethnic majority, minority, and multiracial groups. It also introduces PES as an emerging construct in EI research.

The Black Lives Matter Movement: A Call to Action for Couple and Family Therapists.

The frequent police killings during the COVID-19 pandemic forced a reckoning among Americans from all backgrounds and propelled the Black Lives Matter movement into a global force. This manuscript addresses major issues to aid practitioners in the effective treatment of African Americans via the lens of Critical Race Theory and the Bioecological Model. We place the impacts of racism on Black families in historical context and outline the sources of Black family resilience. We critique structural racism embedded in all aspects of psychology and allied fields. We provide an overview of racial socialization and related issues affecting the parenting decisions in Black families, as well as a detailed overview of impacts of structural racism on couple dynamics. Recommendations are made for engaging racial issues in therapy, providing emotional support and validation to couples and families experiencing discrimination and racial trauma, and using Black cultural strengths as therapeutic resources.

In Their Own Voices: Identity and Racial Socialization Experiences of Young Adult Chinese Adoptees

This qualitative study explored the experiences of transracial Chinese adoptees who were born in China, separated from their biological families, raised in the United States by White families, and given an Anglicized name at the time of their adoption. This study focused on participant experiences as they navigated being raised in the United States as transracial Chinese adoptees, their feelings related to their Chinese names, thoughts about China and birth family search, and experiences of ethnic and racial socialization within their adoptive families. Data were collected from in-depth, semi-structured interviews via Skype that integrated a constructivist–interpretivist and critical epistemological paradigm and coded using grounded-theory methods. Participants ( N = 8) were transracial Chinese adoptees with ages ranging from 18 to 25 years ( M = 21.5 years) who were between 6 and 17 months ( M = 10.6 months) at the time of adoption. Results from the interviews revealed eight axial categories and three overarching selective categories related to their experience as transracial Chinese adoptees: (a) experiences of race and adoption, (b) factors influencing racial–ethnic socialization, and (c) recommendations for adoptive parents. Limitations of the study, future areas of research, and clinical and practice implications are discussed.

MODEL OF NATIONAL EDUCATION OF THE STUDENTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN

The article, proceeding from the social and cultural realities of modern Kazakhstan as a multinational state, actualizes the problem of national education of the students, which is aimed at the development of the national consciousness of a person. The author presents the new model of national education developed by a number of scientists from the Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University. The components of this model are treated in the context of its three most important elements: ethnic, civil, and nationwide. The significance and content of each component, as well as the main methodological provisions, on which the authors rested in the course of its development, are substantiated. A feature of this model is that it involves the purposeful work on the development of the national consciousness of the students from their ethnic socialization and identification within the civil, and from it to the nationwide one focused on the formation of an intellectual and competitive nation

Contextual Moderators of a School-Based Ethnic-Racial Identity Intervention: The Roles of Family Ethnic Socialization and Ethnic-Racial Background.

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) formation is a key developmental competency that contributes to adolescents' sense of self and psychosocial adjustment. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) has demonstrated the efficacy of a universal school-based health promotion intervention program to positively influence adolescents' ERI exploration and ERI resolution, compared to an attention control curriculum that was delivered by the same facilitators, had equivalent contact hours, and focused on post-secondary career and educational options. The current study extended prior tests of the RCT to better understand (a) how intervention-based ERI changes unfolded over two phases-temporally proximal pre- to post-test effects and long-term post-test effects across a 1-year follow-up period, and (b) identify for whom the intervention was more effective by testing theorized contextual moderators-baseline family ethnic socialization practices and youth ethnic-racial background (i.e., White majority vs. ethnic-racial minority). Bilinear spline growth models were used to examine longitudinal ERI trajectories in intervention and control groups across four survey assessments (baseline, 12weeks, 18weeks, 67weeks; N = 215; Mage = 15.02; 49.1% female; 62.6% ethnic-racial minority). In support of an additive effect for the role of families in school-based interventions, post-test ERI exploration significantly increased (relative to thecontrol group) to a greater extent for youth with higher (compared to lower) baseline levels of family ethnic socialization. ERI resolution significantly increased from pre- to post-test for ethnic-racial minority youth and also increased across the 1-year follow-up period for White youthin the intervention. These results highlight family ethnic socialization as a developmental asset for school-based ERI interventions and demonstrate differential pathways by which such interventions support ERI development for ethnic-racial minority and majority adolescents.

The Fairy Tale as a Place of Memory in the Context of Intergenerational Communication

A fairy tale as a form of a cultural code is the most important tool for cultural and ethnic socialization, the transfer of social experience, values, and worldview. Modern society is characterized by a high level of technologization, standardization, and universalization of the communication process which leads to the formation of new social practices of communication of various social groups. The article is focused on highlighting the functional and activity role of a fairy tale in the formation of the social memory of the younger generation and the features of the implementation of intergenerational communication through the fairy tale. In the article, a fairy tale as a place of memory in intergenerational communication is also analyzed using the methodological tools of the sociology of communication.The article discusses the detailing of the concept of “social memory”, types of social memory. With an emphasis on the identification function, the authors consider the main social functions of a fairy tale (cultural and ethnic, socializing, creative, holographic, developmental and therapeutic, lexical-shaped, recreational). The authors consider the activity aspect of the fairy tale as a place of memory is revealed, the interactional relations of communicants, conditioned by social changes and information and communication technologies, in their historical dynamics.The article analyzes the stage of transition from mythological knowledge to the need to carry out initiation practices with the transfer of secrets to the younger generation in encoded form, in the form of a fairy tale. The most significant stage can be called the transformation of a fairy tale into a verbal-poetic story of a fantastic, adventurous, novelistic, and everyday nature. The article analyzes the impact of information technologies on the form of fairy tale transmission as the destruction of the traditional narrative format from the older generation “by the word of mouth” and the exit of the fairy tale beyond the literary genre.In modern society, the range of communication agents in the transmission of social experience between generations has significantly expanded. There appear agents of non-family communication, which take part in the transmission of cultural memory and the formation of memory places in the younger generation. The authors note that in the communicative aspect, a fairy tale is a convenient form for transmitting cultural code, which can be adapted to current formats (Internet, animation, cinema, computer games, etc.). It is shown that the most important feature of the use of modern storytelling tools is the reduction of traditional emotionality in the interactive relationships of communicants, which leads to the erosion of traditional values and a decrease in the depth of intergenerational ties. This trend may lead to the risk of alienation of traditional values.

Bi-ethnic Socialization of Marriage Migrant Women from Vietnam: The Five Practices at the Intersection of Hierarchies

This paper explored the marriage migrant mothers’ experiences of parenting bi-ethnic children in South Korea based on the concepts of ethnic socialization and intersectionality. We analyzed in-depth interviews of 22 marriage migrant women from Vietnam residing in the capital region of South Korea. They had at least one child whose biological father is Korean. Children were 5 years old or older, attending preschool or elementary school. Five types of bi-ethnic socialization strategies were identified, which provide portraits of different situations in which marriage migrant women were placed. The five strategies that emerged from the data were 1) “Natural practice of bi-ethnic socialization” including two heterogeneous groups, “Coexistence of two cultures” and “Mixture of two cultures”, 2) “Active practice of bi-ethnic socialization”, 3) “Struggling practice of bi-ethnic socialization”, 4) “Silence on bi-ethnic socialization”, and 5) “Suppressed bi-ethnic socialization”. The strategies of bi-ethnic socialization that marriage migrant women chose to raise their children reflected personal perceptions of Korean society and individual ethnic identity formed within Korean society. This study complements existing research on ethnic socialization by examining how ethnic socialization practices are shaped by multiple contexts marriage migrant women embedded in Korean society.

Truth, Reconciliation, and Transformation: Continuing on the Path to Equity

One year ago, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) published a landmark policy statement identifying racism as a core social determinant of health and a driver of health inequities.1 Seventy-five years ago, the AAP admitted its first Black members, Drs Alonzo deGrate Smith and Roland Boyd Scott. As the AAP continues to evolve its equity agenda, it is essential that the tortuous experiences of Drs deGrate Smith and Scott on their pathway to AAP membership be truthfully acknowledged and reckoned with.At the time of their initially rejected applications in 1939, both Drs deGrate Smith and Scott were busy clinicians and well-established leaders in the pediatric academic community as faculty at the Howard University College of Medicine in Washington, DC. Dr deGrate Smith, through the practice pathway, and Dr Scott, via examination, were among the earliest pediatricians to achieve certification under the Advisory Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) when the American Board of Pediatrics (ABP) was established in 1933. However, the ABMS required American Medical Association (AMA) membership to honor certification, and the local AMA chapter, the Medical Society of the District of Columbia, was segregated.2 According to the oral history interview of Dr Melvin E. Jenkins Jr, advocacy on the part of the inaugural ABP president, Dr Borden Veeder, was necessary to permanently eliminate this exclusionary barrier and to make certification possible for all eligible candidates regardless of race or ethnicity.3 Drs deGrate Smith and Scott faced other systemic barriers, including the inability to gain admitting privileges to care for even their own patients at local hospitals in the District of Columbia. This was a hurdle that Dr Scott was not able to overcome until 1955, fully 6 years after he had already been appointed Chair of Pediatrics at Howard University.4Although AAP bylaws did not explicitly prohibit physicians of color from membership, and Drs deGrate Smith and Scott were finally admitted in 1945, it is clear that the AAP Executive Board struggled with unbiased consideration of their applications. The characterizations related to Drs deGrate Smith and Scott in the following passages excerpted directly from meeting transcripts of AAP Executive Board meetings in November 1939, November 1944, and June 1945 are elucidating, instructive, and painful to read. The verbatim dialogue and proceedings highlight the racist attitudes and beliefs from which early AAP leaders were clearly not immune.In the United States there is a tendency to be ahistorical when it comes to race. The lack of acknowledgment, or worse, the intentional whitewashing of history and the longitudinal relationship of 400 years of oppression on the present-day expression of racism is not uncommon. As the AAP turns the corner toward the 2030 centennial anniversary of its founding, we cannot do so without authentically acknowledging, owning, and reconciling past discriminatory transgressions like the shameful gauntlet to membership experienced by Drs Alonzo deGrate Smith and Roland Boyd Scott.In honoring the memory of these two trailblazers and their contributions to pediatrics and the AAP,7 be it resolved that, we, the Board of Directors of the AAP:The AAP as an organization is on a firm pathway to broadly establishing an equity agenda through meaningful diversity and inclusion and a societal commitment to combating bias and discrimination in all its forms, including structural and systemic anti-Black racism (Fig 1). This country is already majority represented by children of color when it comes to the pediatric population.Embracing racial and ethnic socialization is critical for all children and families as well as for the pediatricians who care for them. Healing starts at home with truth, reckoning, and honest reconciliation.The AAP is proud to transparently acknowledge, proud to publicly reconcile, and proud to continue to lead on behalf of the best interests of children, adolescents, and young adults and the people who care for them.Sara H. Goza, MD, FAAPLee Savio Beers, MD, FAAPKyle E. Yasuda, MD, FAAPWarren M. Seigel, MD, FAAPMark Del Monte, JDWendy S. Davis, MD, FAAPWarren M. Seigel, MD, FAAPMargaret C. Fisher, MD, FAAPMichelle D. Fiscus, MD, FAAPRichard H. Tuck, MD, FAAPDennis M. Cooley, MD, FAAPGary W. Floyd, MD, FAAPMartha C. Middlemist, MD, FAAPYasuko Fukuda, MD, FAAPLisa A. Cosgrove, MD, FAAPCharles G. Macias, MD, FAAPConstance S. Houck, MD, FAAPJoseph L. Wright, MD, FAAP

Perceived Discrimination and Risk Behaviors in African American Students: the Potential Moderating Roles of Emotion Regulation and Ethnic Socialization.

Prior research has identified perceived discrimination as being a contributing factor in health and mental health disparities. However, there is little research on the relationship between perceived discrimination and behaviors such as hazardous alcohol and illicit substance use and risky sexual behaviors that put people at risk for negative health consequences including HIV. The current research explores the role that cultural factors may play in a tendency for individuals to engage in unhealthy behaviors or an ability to avoid them. A total of 266 college students who self-identified as Black or African American were surveyed on measures of familial ethnic socialization, perceived discrimination, emotion regulation, substance use, and risky sexual behaviors. Findings indicate that perceived discrimination and emotion regulation-suppression were associated with higher levels of hazardous alcohol use, and that emotion regulation-cognitive reappraisal was associated with lower levels of illicit substance use. Implications for intervention and prevention in African American college students are discussed.

“It’s just easier”: Reflections on the intersections of kinship, race, and ethnicity in Asian American adoptive families

ABSTRACT This paper reports Phase II findings of an exploratory study of 26 families who have adopted children with Asian heritage, where at least one parent is Asian American. In-depth interviews provided a rich exploration of parents’ motivations to kin through adoption, the ways in which race and ethnicity factored into their child-selection preferences (if at all), their assumptions about their ability to create kinship bonds with an adopted child, and strategies for racial and ethnic socialization. The themes of approximating or performing family and inconspicuousness were repeated by parents when they considered how race and ethnicity factored into child-selection preferences and their assumptions about creating kinship bonds. The adoptive parents in this study were measured and nuanced in weighing the role of race and ethnicity for Asian adoptees, but the implicit strategies of modeling, mentoring, and intergenerational transmission were described less as strategies, and more about belonging and being a part of an extended tribe that was more authentic because of a shared identity as Asian Americans. Ultimately the question of whose interests are being served when race and ethnicity are considered has been dynamic and shifting throughout adoption history. This study sought to contribute in a small part to moving the conversation beyond the polarized Black-White racialized paradigm and provides direction for further research.

The ethnic identity complexity of transculturally placed foster youth in the Netherlands

This study addresses the ethnic identity of transculturally placed adolescent foster youth with ethnic minority backgrounds in The Netherlands. We conducted qualitative interviews to provide insight into the lifeworlds of twenty foster youth. We found that constructing an ethnic identity was complex for these ethnic minority foster youth. The foster youth showed ethnic identity ambivalence, and contradictory messages about ethnicity by birth parents, foster parents, peers, and strangers contributed to this process. The foster youth also sometimes distanced themselves from their ethnic minority background whereby the intersection of their ethnic minority background and the background of being a foster child could play a role. Additionally, some foster youth told stories of longing for and belonging to their ethnic minority background, especially when birth parents and foster parents cooperated in ethnic socialization. Overall, contradictory and intersecting messages provided by birth parents, foster parents, and peers influenced the extent to which they experienced their ethnic identity as complex. Therefore, future studies should be conducted to provide more insight into these processes, so foster care agencies and foster parents can be trained to fulfill a more guiding role in the ethnic identity development of transculturally placed foster youth.

Context of biethnic acceptance, biethnic affirmation, and life satisfaction among Korean biethnic adolescents

IntroductionThis study aimed to identify latent profiles based on familial ethnic socialization, peer discrimination, and school multicultural climate among biethnic adolescents in South Korea and to examine how the emerged profiles were related to their life satisfaction.We also examined how biethnic affirmation interacted with the profiles in predicting life satisfaction. MethodsQuestionnaire data from the first wave of the Panel Survey of Korean Multicultural Youth Adjustment was used. The sample consisted of 358 biethnic adolescents in 5th and 6th grade in South Korea. The meanage was 11.41 years old. Approximately 60% of the participants were in 5th grade and 51.68% were girls. ResultsThe results of LPA showed that familial ethnic socialization, peer discrimination, and school multicultural climate formed two distinct profiles in the current sample. These profiles were characterized as contexts of high and low biethnic acceptance. Biethnic adolescents in the context of high biethnic acceptance were significantly more satisfied with their lives than those in the context of low biethnic acceptance.Further, the positive association between biethnic iaffirmation and life satisfaction was more pronounced among adolescents in the context of low biethnic acceptance. ConclusionsFindings suggest the importance of promoting biethnic acceptance across family, peer, and school settings for adolescents' biethnic affirmation and life satisfaction.

Ethnic socialization, identity, and values associated with U.S. Latino/a young adults' prosocial behaviors.

Given the increasing saliency of Latino/a young adults in the United States, there is a need to consider developmental theories that may better capture the cultural mechanisms by which individuals from this specific ethnic group are socialized to engage in prosocial behaviors. The inclusion of cultural processes (including identity and values) might be particularly important in models that investigate family socialization processes and prosocial behaviors, because scholars have suggested that cultural values may be transmitted via parental practices and beliefs, including ethnic socialization practices. Participants included 381 U.S. Latino/a young adults (54.2% female; Mage = 21.99). Young adults completed measures of family ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and endorsement of familism and respect values. They also completed a multidimensional measure of prosocial behavior, assessing different types and targets of helping. Structural equation modeling was conducted, and there was support for the importance of ethnic identity and cultural values as mechanisms through which ethnic socialization is associated with prosocial behaviors. Gender moderated these relations, such that family respect played a relatively more prominent mediating role for men, whereas familism played a mediating role for both men and women. The findings emphasize the central role of familial ethnic socialization and cultural processes in fostering prosocial behaviors among U.S. Latino/as but reveal specific patterns of relations based on gender and on target of helping. These findings highlight the need for more research on gender-based and relation-based patterns of prosocial behaviors in U.S. Latinos/a young adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Features of multicultural competence of young people with different types of ethnic identity

The article analyzes the multicultural competence of an individual based on his ethnic socialization. The authors note that multicultural competence determines the life orientation of an individual, the ability to orientate in various spheres of life, and determines the quality of personal relationships in a multicultural society and also presupposes the formation of a personality capable of high-quality, effective life activity in a multicultural society, motivated to understand, differentiate and take into account the differences of ethnic groups. In the course of the empirical research, the ethnic composition of the respondents’ families, self-identification of students with ethnic groups, the attitude of respondents to their ethnic groups / affiliations, the type of ethnic identity, its dominant components and multicultural competence of the individual were investigated. The study revealed significant differences in the parameters of ethnic identity and multicultural competence of mono-ethnic, bi-ethnic, zero, marginal groups, and their specificity and features were described.

다문화 청소년의 민족정체성에 영향을 미치는 부모 요인 분석: 어머니와 아버지의 영향 요인 비교

The purpose of this study was to examine how distinctively mothers and fathers influence the ethnic identity of multicultural adolescents. The data was drawn from the 2015 National Survey on Multi-Cultural Families. The sample included 1,321 multicultural families composed of foreign mothers, Korean fathers, and their adolescent children. Attitudes on multiculturalism, ethnic socialization, and parent-child relationship were selected as parental variables for each parent. For data analysis, a hierarchical multiple regression was conducted. Key findings of the study were as follows. Regarding mothers, only the mother-child relationship significantly predicted the ethnic identity of multicultural adolescents, and accounted for 7% of the variation. The better the mother-child relationship was, the more positive the ethnic identity of multicultural adolescents was. Regarding fathers, father’s attitudes on multiculturalism, ethnic socialization, and the father-child relationship influenced the ethnic identity of multicultural adolescents, and accounted for 2% of the variation. Specifically, multicultural adolescents were more likely to have a positive ethnic identity when their fathers had positive attitudes on multiculturalism, engaged in ethnic socialization, and had a good father-child relationship. Implications for ethnic identity development of multicultural adolescents were discussed.

In Search of the Iraqi Other: Iraqi Fiction in Diaspora and the Discursive Reenactment of Ethno-Religious Identities

In Iraqi fiction, the prerogative to narrate the experience of marginal identities, particularly ethno-religious ones, appeared only in the post-occupation era. Traditionally, secular Iraqi discourse struggled to openly address “sectarianism” due to the prevalent notion that sectarian identities are mutually exclusive and oppositional to national identity. It is distinctly in post-2003 Iraq—more precisely, since the sectarian violence of 2006–2007 began to cut across class, civil society, and urban identities—that works which consciously refuse to depict normative Iraqi identities with their mainstream formulations became noticeable. We witness this development first in the Western diaspora, where Iraqi novels exhibit a fascination with the ethno-religious culture of the Iraqi margins or subalterns and impart a message of pluralistic secularism. This paper investigates the origins of the taboo that proscribed articulations of ethno-religious subjectivities in 20th-century Iraqi fiction, and then culls examples of recent diasporic Iraqi novels in which these subjectivities are encoded and amplified in distinct ways. In the diasporic novel, I argue, modern Iraqi intellectuals attain the conceptual and political distance necessary for contending retrospectively with their formative socialization experiences in Iraq. Through a new medium of marginalization—the diasporic experience of the authors themselves—they are equipped with a newfound desire to unmask subcultures in Iraq and to write more effectively about marginal aspects of Iraqi identity inside and outside the country. These new diasporic writings showcase processes of ethnic and religious socialization in the Iraqi public sphere. The result is the deconstruction of mainstream Iraqi identity narratives and the instrumentalization of marginal identities in a nonviolent struggle against sectarian violence.

Ethnic Socialization, Family Cohesion, and Ethnic Identity Development Over Time among Latinx Adolescents.

Family socialization of one's ethnic culture is essential for ethnic identity development among Latinx adolescents. However, less is known about how the likely changes in family interaction that transpire during adolescence may impact this socialization process. A three-year longitudinal study of 148 Latinx adolescents (ages 13-14; 53% females) examined how changes in youth's family ethnic socialization experiences and sense of family cohesion were related to two dimensions of their ethnic identity development (i.e., exploration and resolution). Youth's family ethnic socialization experiences and sense of family cohesion remained stable, while their exploration and resolution increased across three years. More ethnic socialization experiences at Wave 1 predicted higher initial levels and stability of ethnic identity exploration over time. However, more ethnic socialization at Wave 1 predicted higher initial levels of resolution and predicted less resolution development as youth progressed through adolescence. Among youth who perceived less ethnic socialization, a greater sense of family cohesion was associated with more initial exploration; this compensatory effect was only present at Wave 1. These results illustrate how distinct aspects of the family context uniquely and interactively inform ethnic identity exploration and resolution development.

Beyond what, to how: Different ways African American adolescents receive ethnic and racial socialization messages.

Modes of transmission (MOT) of message content reveal nuances about how ethnic socialization and racial socialization occur. This study shifts the focus beyond "what" messages adolescents receive from caregivers to include "how" messages are communicated about ethnicity and race. African American adolescents (N = 55, 72% female, Mage = 16.8) participated in semistructured interviews that were analyzed with theory-driven content analysis and quantitative procedures to derive patterns from the data. Various forms of verbal and nonverbal MOT were discussed by adolescents. Two patterns of associations between MOT and message content were found: Ethnic content was conveyed more often through nonverbal MOT, whereas racial content occurred more often through verbal MOT. These patterns were revealed at both the response and individual levels. This study links the expression aspect of MOT with ethnic and racial content in interviews that highlight teenagers' voices about how verbal and nonverbal messages about ethnicity and race are received. Further research that examines MOT in relation to message content will provide fuller awareness of ethnic and racial socialization processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).