Ethnic Identity Exploration Research Articles

Is there a mental health wake following the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescents in a male juvenile prison?

Lingering effects of the COVID-19 pandemic loom large in the United States but are particularly of concern in prison settings. In the current study, we examine the ongoing mental health consequences of the pandemic among young people incarcerated in a male juvenile prison. Sequential mixed methods data were obtained-78 young people assigned male at birth completed surveys and 19 completed individual interviews. Seven staff were also interviewed about youth experiences during and following the pandemic. Youth survey results indicated racial and ethnic identity exploration, feeling less safe at night, and experiencing staff harassment were significantly associated with some negative mental health concerns, yet lingering COVID-19 policies were not. Triangulation with interviews underscored these findings by highlighting more specific concerns related to COVID-19, such as social isolation, loneliness, and concerns about the indirect effects the pandemic might have on court outcomes and educational goals. Overall, results of the current analysis provide evidence that incarceration continues to be traumatizing and harmful to youth mental health even following the pandemic. To a lesser extent, these results also imply that lingering effects of the pandemic and concurrent cultural and racial tensions have delayed impacts on the mental health of incarcerated youth during this tumultuous time. Taken together, study findings suggests juvenile prisons must implement readiness plans to mitigate these and other harmful effects of juvenile incarceration in the future.

Ethnic Identification and Stress: Examining HPA Axis Reactivity in Response to a Discrimination Related Laboratory Stressor

Through processes of colonization, American Indians and Alaskan Natives (AI/AN) have faced continuous, ongoing efforts to diminish their unique ethnic identities. Maintaining a robust ethnic identity may shield against harms related to colonization, such as ethnic discrimination. Ethnic discrimination is a psychosocial stressor with implications for the reactivity of our main stress axis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. However, whether ethnic identification buffers against ethnic discrimination remains unclear. The current study examined the stress-buffering effects of two facets of ethnic identification – exploration and commitment – on HPA reactivity in 303 urban-dwelling AI/AN using samples of salivary cortisol collected throughout a discrimination-based stressor task. Building on the rejection-identification hypothesis and other related theories, we hypothesized that ethnic identity exploration will predict greater HPA axis reactivity and commitment will predict lesser HPA axis reactivity. Findings revealed that exploration and commitment were both positively related to stress levels, contrary to expectations that commitment would weaken the relationship between discrimination and stress. Results align with broader findings suggesting ethnic identity can intensify stress responses to discrimination. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of discrimination-related stress and ethnic identification as they relate to ongoing health disparities and challenges experienced by AI/AN communities.

Girls in Pieces: An Exploration of Ethnic Identity in Two Anglo-Latina University Students

Girls in Pieces: An Exploration of Ethnic Identity in Two Anglo-Latina University Students

Conversations and confusions: ethnic and racial identity exploration in a high school asian culture club

ABSTRACT This study investigates the identity exploration of Asian American students in an Asian Culture Club (ACC) at a predominantly white high school in Atlanta, Georgia. While past work focuses on similar ethnic student clubs, this study uniquely documents the processes of identity and community construction. Using participant observations and in-depth interviews, I show that student members of ACC explore and co-construct a panethnic Asian identity while downplaying ethnic boundaries. ACC serves as a community and connect student members to the broader Asian American community in the city and beyond. As the club later transitions into Asian Student Union, the students’ shared panethnic attachment and co-constructed community will now serve as the ground for future panethnic solidarity. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

“I'm Arab American, I'm both”: A qualitative exploration of discrimination, ethnic identity, and mental health among second-generation Arab Americans in an ethnic enclave

“I'm Arab American, I'm both”: A qualitative exploration of discrimination, ethnic identity, and mental health among second-generation Arab Americans in an ethnic enclave

Cascading effects of Chinese American parents' COVID-19 racial discrimination and racial socialization on adolescents' adjustment.

Using a three-wave longitudinal sample of 108 Chinese American parent-adolescent dyads (Mparent-ageW1 = 45.44 years, 17% fathers; Madolescent-ageW1 = 13.34 years, 50% boys), this study examined the effects of parents' COVID-19-related racial discrimination experiences on adolescents' ethnic identity exploration and anxiety as mediated by parents' awareness of discrimination (AOD) socialization and moderated by parents' anxiety and racial socialization competency (RSC). Parents' racial discrimination experiences in 2020 predicted adolescents' greater ethnic identity exploration or greater anxiety in 2022 via parents' greater use of AOD in 2021, depending on the levels of parents' anxiety and RSC. These findings highlighted individual and contextual factors impacting racial socialization processes in Chinese American families.

The Association of Ethnic and American Identities with Psychological Well-Being among Latinx Emerging Adults: The Mediating Role of Bicultural Identity Integration.

Latinx emerging adults explore and commit to their ethnic and American identities which may influence their psychological well-being. However, it may not be the act of exploring and committing to their ethnic and American identities that influence emerging adults' psychological well-being; instead, it may be how they integrate both identities. To test this possibility, this study tested whether ethnic and American identity exploration and commitment were associated with psychological well-being by way of two bicultural identity integration processes (i.e., blendedness and harmony) among Latinx emerging adults. Data came from a year-long three-wave longitudinal study about stress and well-being among Latinx first-years (70% female; Mage = 18.20; SD = 0.51) with Wave 1 collected in Fall 2020, Wave 2 in Spring 2021, and Wave 3 in Fall 2021. Cross-sectional and longitudinal structural equation modeling suggest ethnic identity exploration and American identity commitment to be associated with psychological well-being by way of bicultural identity integration blendedness (i.e., perceived cognitive overlap between identities) and harmony (i.e., perceived affective conflict between identities). Results point to ethnic and American identity exploration and commitment being related with blendedness and harmony, which, in turn, were related with psychological well-being in the moment but not over time.

Examining promotive and protective effects of ethnic identity on alcohol and cannabis use among Black young adults

IntroductionExperiences of racial discrimination among Black Americans are associated with numerous adverse behavioral health outcomes, including risk for substance use. Research has shown ethnic identity to be directly related to reduced substance use risk among Black Americans, as well as mitigate substance use risk as a consequence of exposure to racial discrimination. However, whether the specific facet of ethnic identity (affirmation and exploration), is related to the relationship between racial discrimination and problem substance use based on substance type is unclear. Thus, the current study examined 1) the association between ethnic identity (affirmation and exploration) and problem alcohol and cannabis use, and 2) whether ethnic identity affirmation or exploration moderates the association between racial discrimination and problem substance use among a sample of Black young adults. MethodsThree-hundred and ninety Black young adults ages 18–24 (M = 20.6, 62 % female, 85 % monoracial) completed an online survey that included measures on past-year experiences of racial discrimination, ethnic identity affirmation and exploration, and problem alcohol and cannabis use. Utilizing multiple linear regression and the PROCESS macro, the study examined the promotive (direct) association between ethnic identity and problem substance use, and the protective (moderating) effect of ethnic identity on the relationship between racial discrimination and problem substance use. ResultsAfter accounting for the demographic covariates of age, gender (male, female, and other), and race (monoracial and bi/multiracial), higher ethnic identity affirmation was significantly associated with lower problem alcohol, and higher ethnic identity exploration was significantly associated with lower problem alcohol and cannabis use. The study also observed a moderating effect of ethnic identity affirmation and exploration on the relationship between racial discrimination and problem alcohol use. Specifically, the association between racial discrimination and problem alcohol use weakened at higher levels of ethnic identity affirmation and exploration. Neither ethnic identity affirmation nor exploration significantly moderated the relationship between racial discrimination and problem cannabis use. ConclusionFindings suggest that ethnic identity is associated with problem alcohol use and may also reduce the strength of the association between racial discrimination and problem alcohol use, although these findings need to be confirmed with longitudinal study designs. If supported, interventions focused on strengthening one's ethnic identity affirmation and exploration may offer a potential target for interventions addressing alcohol misuse among Black young adults. However, more research should seek to understand promotive and protective factors for problem cannabis use among Black young adults.

The Protective Role of Perceived Social Support between Ethnic Identity and Adverse Mental Health Outcomes: The Case of Indigenous Adults in Taiwan

Abstract Ethnic identity is considered a psychocultural asset of indigenous. Yet, the search for own ethnic identity can induce unpleasant feelings, especially for indigenous peoples who have encountered colonisation and oppression. Using indigenous peoples in Taiwan, this study examined the protective effect of perceived social support on the associations between ethnic identity and the adverse mental health of anxiety and depression. Participants were self-identified indigenous peoples in Taiwan (n = 200; mean age = 29). A cross-sectional quantitative survey was adopted. Hypotheses were tested with structural equation modelling. Findings were: (1) low ethnic identity commitment was associated with high levels of depression and anxiety. (2) High ethnic identity exploration was associated with high levels of depression and anxiety. (3) Perceived social support was negatively associated with depression and anxiety. (4) Perceived social support protected participants with low ethnic identity commitment from developing depressive and anxiety. (5) Perceived social support protected participants with high ethnic identity of exploration from experiencing depressive symptoms, but not anxiety. Results highlighted the protective role of perceived social support in indigenous peoples with low levels of ethnic identity commitment and high ethnic identity exploration. Implications on using social support interventions to mobilise ethnic identity as a psychocultural asset were discussed.

Latine culture and the environment: How familism and collectivism predict environmental attitudes and behavioral intentions among U.S. Latines

• Cultural values play a unique role in explaining U.S. Latine environmentalism. • Familism is not a significant predictor of pro-environmental behavioral intentions. • Collectivism is a positive predictor of Latine pro-environmental behaviors. • Ethnic identity exploration predicts pro-environmental behavioral intention. • Environmental justice attitudes predict Latine and non-Latine environmental outcomes.

Social support and resilience among Burmese adolescent refugees: Examining ethnic identity searching and belonging as moderators

Adolescent refugees are at risk of developing mental health difficulties due to exposure to trauma and stressors during the process of forced migration. However, many remain resilient in the face of adversity due to various protective factors. Previous research has suggested that family, peer social support, and stronger ethnic identity may serve as protective factors that improve resilience processes in refugee youth with some evidence indicating that these factors may interact to enhance positive adaptation and adjustment. Therefore, this study examined the main effects of peer and family social support, and ethnic identity searching and belonging on resilience behavior in a sample of Burmese adolescent refugees living in the United States. Additionally, ethnic identity searching and belonging were examined as moderators. Results indicated adolescents who reported greater peer and family social support also reported greater resilience during adversity. Ethnic identity searching and belonging were not significant predictors of resilience; however, ethnic identity searching did enhance the relationship between peer social support and resilience at both high and low levels of peer social support. These findings highlight the importance of social support and engaging in ethnic identity exploration for adolescent refugees. The implications for future research and the potential for interventions are fully discussed.

Latinx sexual minority youth's identity development and experiences with preparation for bias

AbstractObjectiveThis study examined how preparation for ethnic and sexual orientation bias uniquely and collectively contributes to ethnic identity and sexual orientation identity development among Latinx sexual minority youth (SMY).BackgroundTheories indicate that parental socialization strategies are associated with youth's development, yet no studies have examined how multiple forms of socialization are uniquely and collectively associated with youth's identity development.MethodHypotheses were tested using self‐reported data from 385 Latinx SMY (M = 20.26, SD = 2.6).ResultsPreparation for ethnic bias was negatively associated with ethnic identity affirmation but positively associated with ethnic identity exploration and resolution. Preparation for sexual orientation bias was negatively associated with ethnic identity exploration, resolution, and affirmation, as well as sexual orientation identity resolution and affirmation, but not exploration. Several interactions emerged between preparation for ethnic bias and sexual orientation bias predicting ethnic and sexual orientation identity.ConclusionFindings suggest that preparation for bias related to ethnicity and sexual orientation are interconnected, rather than independently shaping ethnic and sexual orientation identities development among SMY.ImplicationsAdditional studies are needed to understand the impacts of family socialization related to ethnicity and sexuality to optimize identity development among Latinx SMY.

Personalized Neural Networks Underlie Individual Differences in Ethnic Identity Exploration and Resolution.

This study examined how ethnic identity relates to large-scale brain networks implicated in social interactions, social cognition, self-definition, and cognitive control. Group Iterative Multiple Model Estimation (GIMME) was used to create sparse, person-specific networks among the default mode and frontoparietal resting-state networks in a diverse sample of 104 youths aged 17-21. Links between neural density (i.e., number of connections within and between these networks) and ethnic identity exploration and resolution were evaluated in the full sample. Ethnic identity resolution was positively related to frontoparietal network density, suggesting that having clarity about one's ethnic group membership is associated with brain network organization reflecting cognitive control. These findings help fill a critical knowledge gap about the neural underpinnings of ethnic identity.

Ethnic Identity Development, Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms, and Relationships with Primary Caregivers: A Two-Wave Longitudinal Study among Yi Ethnic Minority Youths in Rural China School Settings

Background. This study examined the effects of post-traumatic stress symptoms and child–primary caregiver relationships on the ethnic identity of Yi ethnic minority adolescents (n = 550; aged 13–18) in rural China over one school year. The moderating effect of caregivers’ relationships over time and ethnic identity, and post-traumatic stress and ethnic identity, were investigated. Methods. Participants completed two waves of the survey. Longitudinal multilevel modeling was used. Results. (1) Ethnic identity exploration increased over time, while ethnic identity commitment remained stable. (2) Post-traumatic stress symptoms led to high levels of ethnic identity exploration and commitment. (3) Participants with distinct caregivers’ relationship patterns, i.e., secured, optimal, deprived, and disengaged, differed in their ethnic identity exploration scores, but not in ethnic identity commitment. (4) While the secured group scored highest in their ethnic identity development over time, youths who felt disengaged with their caregivers showed the fastest rate of positive change in their ethnic identity exploration. (5) Having a secured caregivers’ relationship weakened the effect of post-traumatic stress on ethnic identity exploration. Conclusion. Practical implications for the meaning of ethnic identity exploration, the promoting effect of caregivers’ relationships, and the negative impact of post-traumatic stress among ethnic minority youths were discussed. Future research directions were also proposed.

The roles of ethnic identity and stressors in natural mentoring support among Latinx adolescents

This study explored whether Latinx adolescents’ ethnic identity and stressful experiences predicted characteristics of their naturally-occurring mentoring relationships with non-parental adults. Ninth-grade Latinx students completed surveys about ethnic identity, stress exposure, and their natural mentoring relationships during 9th and 10th grade. Youth who showed greater ethnic identity exploration in 9th grade perceived more support from mentors who were family members at follow-up. In addition, Latinx youth who experienced more stressors were less likely to identify familial mentors and to retain familial and Latinx mentors from baseline to follow-up. Youth who were exposed to more stressors also reported receiving significantly more support from their natural mentors at follow-up, but this association was only observed for non-Latinx mentors. Findings are some of the first to identify predictors of mentor retention and perceived mentoring relationship support among Latinx youth, and have implications for understanding intergenerational relationships that may promote resilience in this population.

Ethnic identity, perceived classmate support and general self-efficacy in ethnic minority adolescents in rural Chinese school settings

This study examines the associations among ethnic identity, perceived classmate support, and general self-efficacy in a group of hard-to-reach Yi ethnic minority adolescents. The sample comprises youths who have suffered from poverty and parental loss (n = 450, age 14–17, male = 23.3%) in Liangshan, rural China. Using Phinney's ethnic identity development theory, we take Yi adolescents as a case to conceptualize ethnic identity exploration and commitment as cultural assets that link the association between perceived classroom support and general self-efficacy. We used the structural equation modelling (SEM) technique to test our hypotheses. Age, gender, parental loss, and posttraumatic stress (PTSD) risk were included as covariates. Our findings show that: (1) Perceived classmate support was positively associated with general self-efficacy, but the effect was attenuated when ethnic identity exploration and commitment were included in the model; (2) Perceived classmate support was positively associated with ethnic identity exploration and commitment; (3) Ethnic identity exploration was positively related to general self-efficacy while classmate support was not, when accounting for the shared relationships among all three variables; (4) No associations were found between ethnic identity commitment and general self-efficacy; (5) The covariate of PTSD risk was positively associated with ethnic identity exploration and commitment. Our findings suggest a possible mediating role of ethnic identity exploration between perceived classmate support and general self-efficacy, indicating an avenue for future research. These results shift current narratives; from seeing ethnic minorities as vulnerable populations towards advocating for classmate support and ethnic identity as assets for positive development. The theoretical contributions of this study are also discussed.

Latinx Emerging Adults’ Religious Identity, Ethnic Identity, and Psychological Well-Being

The current study examined associations among religious and ethnic identity exploration and commitment, and psychological well-being (PWB) among 683 Latinx emerging adults. A subset of data collected in the Multi-Site University Study of Identity and Culture was analyzed, focusing on three measures: (a) Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), (b) Religious Identity Measure (adapted from MEIM), and (c) Scales of Psychological Well-Being–Short Form. Correlations indicated that PWB was positively related to religious and ethnic identity commitment, not exploration. Regression analyses indicated that commitment to religious or ethnic identity were positively associated with PWB, while exploration of religious or ethnic identity were not associated with PWB. In addition, religious identity exploration moderated the relation between ethnic identity exploration and commitment and PWB. These findings have implications for efforts to support the development of ethnic and religious identity among Latinx emerging adults.

A mixed-methods exploration of ethnic identity and self-esteem among mixed-race adolescent girls

Background:The self-esteem and school experiences of mixed-race adolescents in the United Kingdom is overlooked in research, despite studies showing mixed-race adolescents may have poorer mental health outcomes than their monoracial peers (e.g. Wong et al., 2012).Aims:This study explored if and how the school experiences and self-esteem of mixed-race girls differed from monoracial peers, and potential mechanisms accounting for differences in self-esteem.Sample:Quantitative questionnaires (Phase 1) sampled 109 girls (Mage=13.9 years). Interviews (Phase 2) sampled 12 mixed-race girls (Mage=14.3 years).Methods:This study used a mixed-methods design. Phase 1 examined self-esteem scores, prevalence of peer-based discrimination, and related support factors (ethnic identity exploration and affirmation, peer support and friendship diversity). Phase 2 involved semi-structured interviews.Results:Mixed-race girls reported lower self-esteem than monoracial peers from Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) backgrounds. Friendship support predicted mixed-race girls’ self-esteem. Interview data showed that microaggressions (i.e. everyday comments communicating hostile racial messages), family racial socialisation practices (i.e. how youth learn about their own ethnicity and navigating racism) and school diversity were important in understanding the self-esteem of mixed-race girls.Conclusions:This study provides insight into adolescent mixed-race girls’ school experiences and self-esteem, with implications for practitioners and families. We discuss areas for further research.

Ethnic Identity Discourse in Intercultural Education

Teaching intercultural education and communication without personal ethnic identity development exposes students to the possibility of becoming so enamored with the cultures of others that they become disillusioned with their own ethnic heritages. Such circumstances are especially detrimental to children of color living in societies in which everything associated with White people is considered positive, good, and desirable, and much associated with people of color is interpreted to be negative, dangerous and worthy of denigration. In this article, I report and analyze the findings of primary and secondary school teachers who facilitated students’ ethnic identity development using subject matter content. With a strong sense of their ethnic identity, I argue that such students are positioned to benefit from instruction in intercultural education and communication with its requisite new cultural knowledge, feelings and behaviors. These findings reinforce both the need and efficacy of ethnic identity exploration as a necessary component of intercultural education at all levels of schooling. Ethnic identity exploration in education includes making connections with students’ families about ethnic identity, engaging students in ethnic identity dialogue, introducing students to social justice role models in their ethnic groups, and exploration of ethnic histories, traditions, and customs.

Mental health among Latinx emerging adults: Examining the role of familial accusations of assimilation and ethnic identity.

The aims of this study are to investigate (1) how family response to acculturation (e.g., accusations of assimilation) is related to anxiety and depressive symptomatology for Latinx emerging adults. This study's goal is also to analyze (2) the extent to which ethnic identity components and gender moderate the respective associations. Cross-sectional survey was completed by 200 Latinx emerging adults. Inclusion criteria involved reading English, ages 18-25, currently reside in Maricopa or Miami-Dade Counties and self-identify as Latinx. Analysis used hierarchical multiple regression and moderation analyses. Findings indicate that higher familial accusations of assimilation were associated with higher symptoms of depression and anxiety. Moderation analyses indicate that gender had a statistically significant interaction with accusations of assimilation in relation to symptoms of both depression and anxiety. A significant three-way interaction between ethnic identity exploration, gender, and intracultural accusations of assimilation in relation to symptoms of depression interaction among men was found. Findings from the study add to literature on the effect of intragroup marginalization on Latinx mental health and highlight gender differences. The ethnic identity component of exploration is found to be a protective factor for men which wanes over increasing levels of accusation of assimilation.