Ethnic Food Research Articles

Effects of steam explosion-modified rice bran dietary fiber on volatile flavor compounds retention and release of red date-flavored naan (ethnic specialty food of Xinjiang) during storage

This study explored the effects of steam explosion-modified rice bran dietary fiber (S-RBDF) on red date-flavored naan quality and flavor characteristics. The results revealed that the rheological properties of the dough were improved with the incremental addition of S-RBDF (0–5%). The microstructure revealed that adding an appropriate amount of S-RBDF (1–5%) enabled more starch granules to be embedded in the dough network. Notably, the addition of 5% S-RBDF resulted in naan with an optimum specific volume and texture, which consumers preferred. Additionally, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis showed that adding S-RBDF to naan contributed to the retention and sustained release of pleasant volatile compounds (e.g. red date flavor, etc.), while inhibiting the development of unpleasant volatile compounds by delaying the oxidation and decomposition of lipids and preserving the antioxidant phenolic compounds, thus contributing to flavor maintenance of naan during storage. Overall, these results provided a foundation for developing high-quality flavored naan.

Traditional Foods for Athletic Sports

The appetite for ethnic foods in world got up with the reinvention of traditional cultural recipes and the possible application in all sectors. In the recent years, there has been increasing interest towards traditional foods throughout the world due to their importance in health, nutrition as well as their immense commercial potentials. In addition there has also been an initiative to conserve these ethnic foods before they become extinct. Athletics isan endurance game needs more specific dietary planning as per the requirement of activity schedule. Athletes today follow a vague diet and mis- understood the principles of idealdiet for sports activities. The poor diet drops them up with poor performance and several health issues. Ethnic foods of Indian origin possess interesting combination of nutrient that is required by an athlete in native state. Paanagam, Bajra porridge, Akkaravadisil, Kachayam and Porivilanga Urundai are someethnic recipes of Tamil Nadu were studied with their nutritional potentials and recommended for better athletic performance.

Ethnobotanical importance of families Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, and Fabaceae (Angiosperms) among Rajasthan tribes, India

The families Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, and Fabaceae are well-known among Angiosperms for providing ethnic or traditional food and medicine. The Apocynaceae family is highly valued for its medicinal properties, providing a rich source of drugs used in conventional and modern medicine. This family is a powerhouse of medicinal activity with 4600 species under 415 genera. Similarly, the Asteraceae family is renowned for its edible and medicinal weeds grown for over 3000 years, making it a well-known source of natural remedies. The family mainly contains taxa with inulin, a natural polysaccharide with pro-biotic properties. However, it has been recognized that many other bioactive compounds can be found within this family. With approximately 665 genera and 17500 species worldwide and over 1100 species and 100 genera in India alone, the Fabaceae family significantly contributes to the world's flora. The genera of this family are well known for producing a diverse range of phytochemicals, including 3-nitropropanoic acid, a potent mycotoxin. It is worth noting that almost every tribe in India, particularly Rajasthan, is aware of the therapeutic properties of various plants from these families. The arid state of India boasts rich territories that host an array of plant families. By delving into the scientific literature on the phytochemical properties and ethnobotanical uses of various plant families, valuable insights can be gained that could enable us to better understand and utilize these plants. This knowledge could lead to discoveries and innovations in plant-based medicine and agriculture.

Investigation of the antidiabetic and probiotic properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from some ethnic fermented foods of Darjeeling District

BackgroundIndigenous communities residing in the Darjeeling Himalayan region and its adjacent hilly areas have a deeply rooted cultural tradition of consuming a diverse range of vegetable and milk-based fermented products, believed to confer various health advantages. With this traditional knowledge, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from popular fermented foods such as Chhurpi (derived from Bos grunniens milk), Gundruk (made from Brassica juncea leaves), Sinki (derived from Raphanus sativus taproots), and Kinema (produced from Glycine max beans). This study aimed to investigate the probiotic properties of the prevalent LABs, including aggregation properties, bile salt hydrolase activities, survival under gastro-inhibitory conditions, safety evaluations, and their potential health-promoting attributes, with a specific focus on inhibiting α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes.ResultsFive of the LAB isolates demonstrated notable viability rates exceeding 85% when exposed to gastro-inhibitory challenges. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing, these isolates were identified as Pediococcus pentosaceus (isolate GAD), Lactobacillus plantarum (isolates KAD and CAD), Lactobacillus brevis (isolate SAD), and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (isolate CMD). These LAB isolates exhibited versatile carbon source utilization, significant auto- and co-aggregation, and bile salt hydrolase (BSH) properties. Auto-aggregation capacity notably increased over time, ranging from 30 to 150 min, with percentage increments from 4.83 ± 1.92% to 67.60 ± 5.93%. L. brevis SAD displayed the highest co-aggregation increment (%) against Staphylococcus aureus, while L. plantarum KAD demonstrated potent antimicrobial activity. In vitro analyses postulated potential health benefits related to antidiabetic properties, particularly inhibiting α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes. L. brevis SAD exhibited the highest α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, while L. plantarum KAD displayed the most potent α-amylase inhibitory activity. Comprehensive safety assessments, including antibiotic susceptibility profiling, hemolytic activity evaluation, and in vivo acute toxicity studies, confirmed the suitability of these LAB isolates for human consumption.ConclusionsThe isolates show promising probiotic characteristics and significant potential in addressing metabolic health. These results carry substantial scientific implications, suggesting the pharmaceutical-based applications of these traditional fermented foods. Further in vivo investigation is recommended to fully elucidate and exploit the health benefits of these LAB isolates, opening avenues for potential therapeutic interventions and the development of functional foods.

The World Must Put Hunger to Shame: The Hidden Story of Homowo, Ngmayem and Ngma

This message calls our world to put hunger to shame using the revealed examples of Homowo and ngmayem, an original ethnic food systems in Ghana. The occurrence of hunger over the centuries can be understood from hunger’s proverbial mood. The results of hunger on humans due to its numerous causes and it associated lessons compelled early Ga-Adangbe settlers in Ghana to independently initiate the concepts of ‘Homowo’ (hoot at hunger) and ‘Ngmayem’ (celebrate life foods) as food systems. The hidden systems and basics in these unique food systems of ‘hoot at hunger’ and that of ‘celebrate life foods’ was studied. Some notable findings from the concept of ‘hoot at hunger’ involves a comprehensive layout of hooting at hunger using sustainable agriculture and the following principles: an appropriate food with or without therapeutic effect, applicable technology, basic knowledge in food and nutrition, building a suitable organizational system driven by skilled humans across several communities, by recalling historical records of hunger in society, a set day of remembrance, eating good foods all day, by the story of who we are and where we come from, with unity of purpose as a community lead by honest leaders, and also by proper symbols, designs and expressions. A remarkable outcome from ‘celebrate life foods’ norm was that it showed a notable historical record about a people, their decisions, actions, dealings and group effort in time during a hunger crisis. Once again, both concepts call for the establishment of specialized centers for advanced studies on unique food systems of old and hunger around the world with a museum chronicling the past stories of hunger challenges among a people, district, nation and the world, their probable causes and its impact on their health, and how they invented exceptional systems and products to solve those problems. All these concepts are intended to transform or strengthen food systems.

Dietary supplementation of Lactobacillus brevis SAD ameliorates high-fat diet-induced hyperglycemia and associated metabolic issues in Swiss albino mice

ABSTRACT This study is aimed to investigate the therapeutic potential of a strain of Lactobacillus brevis (SAD) isolated from an ethnic fermented food consumed regularly by the native people of Darjeeling Himalayan region. Effects of regular consumption of this lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in ameliorating the pathophysiological conditions associated with hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and obesity is studied in mice having induced obesity by high-fat diet (HFD). Key objectives included evaluating the strain’s impact on glycemic parameters, lipid profiles, colonic oxidative stress, inflammation, and gut integrity while assessing the metagenomic composition. For this study, male Swiss albino mice were grouped into Normal Diet (ND), HFD, and L. brevis SAD supplemented (LB) groups. It was found that, L. brevis SAD supplementation significantly improved glycemic parameters, insulin sensitivity, at the same time reduced glycation. It also mitigated obesity-related effects, such as weight gain, organ enlargement, and adverse lipid profiles. Moreover, the HFD group exhibited pronounced deterioration in gut integrity, evidenced by alterations in colonic histomorphology, concurrent with the development of obesity and hyperglycemia. In LB group gut integrity appeared to be restored in the histological study. Metagenomic analysis demonstrated the strain’s potential to modulate the gut microbial composition towards health promoting groups. This study demonstrates the therapeutic potential of L. brevis SAD in mitigating the adverse metabolic effects induced by HFD.

Tourism and Ethnic Food Industry of Manipur

Tourism is a multidimensional crucial development parameter of the world economy. The tourism and ethnic food industry of Manipur has a potential in gaining a major place in the South East Asian countries tourism industry. This paper attempts to study the tourism and ethnic food industry of Manipur keeping in mind the Look East Policy of the Indian Government. The data for this paper have been generated both from primary as well as secondary sources. The study finds that the prospect for tourism can be widen up with proper planning and connectivity. It also identifies the various problems and challenges that are to be overcome to buttress the regional connectivity.

Assessing the impact of different cooking methods on nutrients, phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of traditional food plants

Indigenous communities rely on various nutrient-dense traditional food plants (TFPs) to make traditional ethnic foods. The dietary potential of the nutrient-dense and healthy TFPs needs to be fully explored. This work investigates the proximate components, minerals, phytochemicals, and antioxidant activity of raw and cooked samples of five TFPs consumed by local communities in Kerala, India. The results show that Boerhavia diffusa possessed the highest fat (9.02 %) and fibre (3.61 %), whereas Ipomoea batatas recorded the highest protein (9.47 %), vitamin C (8.58 µM/g) and polyphenol (120.36 mg GAE/gDW) content. Amaranthus viridis showed an abundance of Mn (48.4 mg/100 g), Mg (2404.37 mg/100 g), and Zn (248.27 mg/100 g). The highest antioxidant activity was observed in A. viridis (IC50 = 0.426 mg/mL) and I. batatas (IC50 = 1.30 mg/mL) in the ABTS and DPPH assays, respectively. Boiling was the most effective cooking method for preserving protein, carbohydrate and fat stability in all TFPs. The TFPs showed a minimal reduction in minerals after being subjected to cooking. Microwaving had the least deleterious effect on phytochemicals in all TFPs. The research highlights the capacity of these TFPs to improve nutrition and promote consumer well-being with minimal environmental impact.

Fermentation Technology and Functional Foods.

Food is an integral part of our civilization. It is a cultural phenomenon that, while having evolved, is associated with societal traditions and identity. This work analyzes studies conducted to highlight the health properties of the most common ethnic foods. Although these foods were originally created from the need to preserve perishable produce, presently, we know that the fermentation process makes them nutritionally more complete. The basis of these transformations lies in that vast range of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms that, similar to small biochemical factories, can transform the initial nutrients into metabolically more active biomolecules through fermentation. Although naturally occurring microbes work together for mutual benefit, environmental conditions enhance or inhibit their development. Starting from a selection of microorganisms naturally present on a substrate, we attempt to select the most suitable species to obtain a fermented food with the best nutritional qualities and the richest in nutraceuticals.

푸드트럭, 소셜미디어, 유동하는 쿠바 음식문화

This article examines ethnic and regional food culture in the United States, focusing on the Jon Favreau film Chef, and analyzes the intertextual impact of sharing food photos in social media spaces on the practice of food consumption and production in the real world. A summary and main research findings are as follows. First, in Chef, America’s diverse ethnic and regional food culture is portrayed through cinematic images of various ingredients and urban spaces along the main characters’ journey to Miami, New Orleans, Austin, and Los Angeles. Each city’s locality and food culture are complexly expressed through unique street scenes that preserve the local history and culture, famous restaurants that have become local attractions, colorful and lively food images, sounds generated during the cooking process, and cheerful background music. Second, this film can enhance understanding of the motivation for setting up and operating food trucks in the U.S. For the protagonist, Carl Casper, Cuban food and food trucks serve as symbols and infrastructure that guarantee his professional autonomy and creativity as a chef. By analyzing its storyline and dialogue, this article examines the ways, meanings, and repercussions of food culture representation in the media by those in the restaurant industry who prepare and sell food themselves, not by food consumers. To recapitulate, Chef is valuable as educational content in that it vividly introduces America’s diverse ethnic and regional food culture, farmers’ markets, and food truck culture. This article will contribute to a better understanding of how the prevalence of digital media can affect and socially reorganize food culture by examining the establishment and operation of food trucks in the U.S. through the film and the relationship between food truck businesses and social network services.

Nutritional quality and microbial diversity of Chhurpe from different milk sources: an ethnic fermented food of high-altitude regions of the Western Himalayas

Chhurpe is a naturally fermented traditional dairy food of high altitude Western Himalayan region. They are generally prepared from cow or yak milk and are consumed during harsh winters. The present study was conducted to characterize the different Chhurpe samples traditionally prepared by the ethnic groups utilizing milk from different animal breeds such as cow, yak, Zomo (cow × yak), and Germo (Zomo × yak). Nutritional characterization revealed that 100 g of Chhurpe could completely meet the dietary protein requirements of children and adults with high concentrations of methionine and lysine. Tryptophan and valine were the limiting amino acids among all the Chhurpe samples. Palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids were the predominant fatty acids. The Chhurpe samples were a rich source of micronutrients such as calcium, iron, and zinc meeting above 70% of recommended dietary allowances (RDA) among children (3–10 years) and up to 20% RDA for adults. Culture-independent metagenomic analysis revealed that lactic acid bacteria were the predominant group, consisting of genera such as Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Lactococcus, and Streptococcus followed by acetic acid bacteria, mainly Acetobacter. At the species level, Lactobacillus delbrueckii was the abundant strain among all the Chhurpe samples. Species diversity was significantly higher in Chhurpe prepared from Zomo milk. Probiotic bacterial strains such as Lactobacillus helveticus, L. delbrueckii, L. brevis, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides were identified in the Zomo Chhurpe indicating their superior quality. The present study was an attempt to popularize Chhurpe and promote its wider consumption by highlighting its nutritional properties.

Retraction Note: Physicochemical characteristics of jagung bose, an ethnic staple food from East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia

Retraction Note: Physicochemical characteristics of jagung bose, an ethnic staple food from East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia

Maybe eating more local food is what we need: qualitative views on plant‐based food among Thai consumers

SummaryOne way to increase the consumption of nutritious diets as part of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is by promoting plant‐based (PB) food consumption. Many food companies have been trying to develop innovative PB food products, while some policymakers have been promoting PB diet patterns. This research aims to gain an in‐depth understanding of consumer PB food attitudes and factors affecting consumers' PB food choices. In‐depth interviews with semi‐structured questions and a projective technique were conducted with 28 participants (n = 28) in Chiang Mai, Thailand, in March–April 2022. Quota sampling was based on the equal age and gender of the participants (age between 18–75 years old). Thematic analysis was carried out to identify themes that emerged from the interview. The results revealed that PB food attitudes varied based on age. Among more senior consumers, the PB term was new to them. They perceived local dishes are mainly from plants. For the younger generation, PB food was perceived as fake meat with unnecessary food additives. PB food price was a critical factor for consumer food choice. However, consumers might be persuaded to consume more PB food due to its nutritional benefits and situational factors. A new PB food product concept can be developed from local dishes instead of PB products that have been successfully launched abroad. PB food campaigners can raise awareness about certain ethnic foods instead of giving broad advice about the PB diet concept.

Exploring how YouTube videos demonstrating preparation of dried wood ear mushrooms could pose food safety risks: a case study

PurposeIn 2020, an outbreak of Salmonella Stanley linked to imported dried wood ear mushrooms affected 55 individuals in the United States of America. These mushrooms, commonly used in Asian cuisine, require processing, like rehydration and cutting, before serving. The US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention advise food preparers to use boiling water for rehydration to inactivate vegetative bacterial pathogens. Little is known about how food handlers prepare this ethnic ingredient and which handling procedures could enable Salmonella proliferation.Design/methodology/approachThis study used content analysis to investigate handling practices for dried wood ear mushrooms as demonstrated in YouTube recipe videos and to identify food safety implications during handling of the product. A total of 125 Chinese- and English-language YouTube videos were analysed.FindingsMajor steps in handling procedures were identified, including rehydration, cutting/tearing and blanching. Around 62% of the videos failed to specify the water temperature for rehydration. Only three videos specified a water temperature of 100 °C for rehydrating the mushrooms, and 36% of the videos did not specify the soaking duration. Only one video showed handwashing, cleaning and sanitising of surfaces when handling the dried wood ear mushrooms.Practical implicationsThis study found that most YouTube videos provided vague and inconsistent descriptions of the rehydration procedure, including water temperature and soaking duration. Food preparers were advised to use boiling water for rehydration to inactivate vegetative bacterial pathogens. However, boiling water alone is insufficient to inactivate all bacterial spores. Extended periods of soaking and storage could be of concern for spore germination and bacterial growth. More validation studies need to be conducted to provide guidance on how to safely handle the mushrooms.Originality/valueThis study will make a distinctive contribution to the field of food safety by being the first to investigate the handling procedure of a unique ethnic food ingredient, dried wood ear mushrooms, which has been linked to a previous outbreak and multiple recalls in the United States of America. The valuable data collected from this study can help target food handling education as well as influence future microbial validation study design and risk assessment.

Local Knowledge of Traditional Medicine and Ethnic Food Duano, Kerinci and Suku Anak Dalam Jambi As a Natural Science Learning Resource

Purpose of the study: The aim of this research is to explore the concept of science (biology, physics, and chemistry) in traditional ethnic medicine and food of the Duano, Kerinci, and Suku Anak Dalam Jambi.
 Methodology: This research examines the concept of science based on traditions and local knowledge as a source of science learning (biology, chemistry, and physics). Type of qualitative research with an ethnographic approach. Data was collected through observation, interviews, FGD, and documentation using Spradley model data analysis.
 Main Findings: The research found that the Duano Dalam tribe has local traditions and knowledge, such as menorah sunburn, marine ecology, lung, and gulai making. The Kerinci tribe has local knowledge about ethnic medicine and food, including Betemas/Tasapa and surian chili sauce. Meanwhile, the Anak Dalam (SAD) tribe has a tradition of Besale and local knowledge of Batangas and fish Pekasam food. The collection of traditions and local knowledge of each tribe has the potential to become a basis for science concepts in learning.
 Novelty/Originality of this study: The novelty or originality of the research entitled “Local Knowledge of Traditional Medicine and Ethnic Food of the Duano, Kerinci, and Anak Dalam Tribes as a Natural Science Learning Resource" lies in several key aspects. These aspects are 1) Local traditions and knowledge that can be used as a basis for science learning, 2) cultural and ethnographic perspectives as sources of science learning, 3) Interdisciplinary approaches, 4) Cross-Cultural Learning Potential, and 5) Conservation and Sustainable Practices.

The one-humped camel: The animal of future, potential alternative red meat, technological suitability and future perspectives.

The 2020 world population data sheet indicates that world population is projected to increase from 7.8 billion in 2020 to 9.9 billion by 2050 (Increase of more than 25%). Due to the expected growth in human population, the demand for meats that could improve health status and provide therapeutic benefits is also projected to rise. The dromedary also known as the Arabian camel, or one-humped camel ( Camelus dromedarius), a pseudo ruminant adapted to arid climates, has physiological, biological and metabolic characteristics which give it a legendary reputation for surviving in the extreme conditions of desert environments considered restrictive for other ruminants. Camel meat is an ethnic food consumed across the arid regions of Middle East, North-East Africa, Australia and China. For these medicinal and nutritional benefits, camel meat can be a great option for sustainable meat worldwide supply. A considerable amount of literature has been published on technological aspects and quality properties of beef, lamb and pork but the information available on the technological aspects of the meat of the one humped camel is very limited. Camels are usually raised in less developed countries and their meat is as nutritionally good as any other traditional meat source. Its quality also depends on the breed, sex, age, breeding conditions and type of muscle consumed. A compilation of existing literature related to new technological advances in packaging, shelf-life and quality of camel meat has not been reviewed to the best of our knowledge. Therefore, this review attempts to explore the nutritional composition, health benefits of camel meat, as well as various technological and processing interventions to improve its quality and consumer acceptance. This review will be helpful for camel sector and highlight the potential for global marketability of camel meat and to generate value added products.

Ethnic Food and Immigrants’ Search for “Home”: Ethnic Restaurants in Çankaya, Ankara

Ethnic Food and Immigrants’ Search for “Home”: Ethnic Restaurants in Çankaya, Ankara

Unveiling the therapeutic potential of Lobaria extract and its depsides/depsidones in combatting Aβ42 peptides aggregation and neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease.

Background: The development of effective inhibitors that can inhibit amyloid β (Aβ) peptides aggregation and promote neurite outgrowth is crucial for the possible treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Lobaria (Schreb.) Hoffm., a traditional Chinese medicine used in Himalaya region for inflammatory diseases, contains depsides/depsidones (DEPs) such as gyrophoric acid, norstictic acid, and stictic acid known for their anti-cancer and anti-inflammation properties. Methods: Lobaria extracts were analyzed using HPLC to identify DEPs and establish standards. The inhibitory effects of Lobaria on Aβ42 fibrillization and depolymerization were assessed using various approaches with biophysical and cellular methods. The neuroprotective activity of Lobaria extracts and its DEPs aganist Aβ-mediated cytotoxicity was also evaluated. Results: Norstictic and stictic acid were found in the water extract, while norstictic, stictic, and gyrophoric acid were detected in the ethanol extract of Lobaria. Both extracts, and their DEPs effectively inhibited Aβ42 fibrillation and disaggregate mature Aβ42 fibrils. Notably, the ethanol extract showed superior inhibitory effect compared to the water extract, with gyrophoric acid being the most effective DEPs. Additionally, herbal extract-treated Aβ42 aggregation species significantly protected neuronal cells from Aβ42-induced cell damage and promoted neurite outgrowth. Conclusion: This study is the first to investigate the effect of Lobaria on Aβ42 and neuronal cell in AD. Given that Lobaria is commonly used in ethnic medicine and food with good safety records, our findings propose that Lobaria extracts and DEPs have potential as neuroprotective and therapeutic agents for AD patients.

ETHNIC FOOD TRUCK CONSUMERS’ SATISFACTION: A COMBINATION OF PLS-SEM AND fsQCA ANALYSIS

Food trucks represent a unique dining option that encompasses elements such as culinary innovation, small business entrepreneurship, and cultural diversity. Grounded in the self-determination theory, this research aimed to examine a framework of ethnic food truck visitors’ satisfaction using symmetric and asymmetric approaches. Drawing from a sample of 416 online respondents, the symmetric analysis revealed that brand image mediated the relationship between the quality concepts (food quality and delivery quality) and satisfaction. In addition, destination image mediated the relationship between authenticity concepts (food authenticity and atmosphere authenticity) and satisfaction. Cuisine type partially moderated the structural model consisting of quality, image, and satisfaction. Through an asymmetric approach, the study identified configurations predicting high and low satisfaction, highlighting the combined effects of multiple ingredients. These insights provide valuable theoretical and managerial implications for understanding customer satisfaction within the food truck industry.

Beronok (Meranti sea cucumber), a Meranti ethnic food culture in Indonesia

Meranti, whose capital is Selatpanjang, is one of the island areas surrounded by large rivers and is directly adjacent to the sea, which means the water is salty. Meranti is designated as a national food security development area because it generates biological wealth in western Indonesia, where beronok (meranti sea cucumber) is commonly served as a side dish to various dishes. This article investigated Indonesia's meranti ethnic food culture, specifically beronok, typically consumed raw or processed. Data of this research are about beronok as a tradisional food processed by the Meranti community made into a variety of food such as mpek-mpek, nuggets, meatbals, sausages and soups by using some steps of cooking and seasonings. The results of this investigation show that Beronok is one of the seafood and traditional food products that have the potential to generate additional valuable resources and generate a sustainable income for the community. Beronok is typically consumed raw, but is generally processed into wet foods such as 'mpek-mpek', 'nugget', 'bakso', 'sosis' and 'sup' or dried processed foods to be reused as flour. The research also showed that the Meranti people maintained their traditional food culture called “beronok” from the past to the present by utilizing their surrounding natural resources.