Ethiopian Wolf Research Articles

Homozygosity indicators in canine MHC region of the Standard Poodle and Leonberger populations

Homozygosity indicators in canine MHC region of the Standard Poodle and Leonberger populations

Hot Dogs, Hungry Bears, and Wolves Running Out of Mountain—International Wildlife Law and the Effects of Climate Change on Large Carnivores

The world’s largest predators, like their prey species and biodiversity at large, face increasing impacts from climate change, in addition to various other threats. Such climate impacts include the shrinking and disruption of habitat (e.g., polar bear, wolverine); range shifts, especially upslope (e.g., snow leopard, Ethiopian wolf) and poleward (e.g., golden jackal); reduced availability of key resources as water becomes scarcer and prey populations suffer from extreme weather, disease or other climate-related impacts (e.g., Gobi bear, cheetah); and increased human–wildlife conflict, when large carnivores progressively range beyond protected areas (e.g., African wild dog), or when climate change makes their ranges more suitable for livestock (e.g., lion). The aforementioned and many other large carnivore species are protected under global and/or regional legal instruments for wildlife conservation, such as the Bonn Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), the Algiers and Maputo Conventions on African Nature Conservation, and the Bern Convention on European Wildlife Conservation. We view current international wildlife law through the lens of the aforementioned scenarios and, as it were, through the eyes of the wildlife species involved, and attempt to assess to what extent the law is ‘climate change proof’ in terms of being prepared for said scenarios. Our analysis indicates, first, that most of the climate adaptation measures that seem necessary—concerning protected areas, connectivity, counteracting climate impacts, and addressing non-climate threats—can in principle be achieved by fully and properly implementing the law as it stands. Second, it appears that the facilitation of range shifts beyond historic ranges still calls for some serious attention and resourceful interpretation. Third, it seems that particularly significant hurdles have yet to be overcome before the law is properly attuned to facilitating managed relocation (assisted colonization) where necessary.

Managing conflicts between local land use and the protection of the Ethiopian wolf: Residents’ preferences for conservation program design features

Conflict over land use is one of the challenges faced by large carnivore conservation programs in human-disturbed landscapes. Designing effective conservation strategies requires an understanding of the socioecological context and people’s preferences towards conservation programs. This study investigates preferences of rural residents for management options defined by conservation program attributes to protect the endangered Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, in the Bale Mountains National Park of Ethiopia. The conservation program attributes examined include population targets for the Ethiopian wolf, increases in the size of the protected habitat area, monitoring outposts, local participation in monitoring, and provision of financial incentives to the local residents. Using a scale extended latent class model, we analyse choice experiment data collected from households living inside, adjacent to and outside the park. We find that preferences for the conservation programs are heterogeneous. Proximity to the park and park associated livelihoods influence residents’ preference for the conservation programs. A significant proportion of residents, predominantly agro-pastoralists, prefer increases in the population of the Ethiopian wolf and receiving financial incentives from wolf-related tourism. Addressing local livelihood interests, and promoting alternative livestock management strategies among rural residents, would help ensure tolerance to and the recovery of the wolf population.

What are tourists willing to pay for securing the survival of a flagship species? The case of protection of the Ethiopian wolf

Ecotourism can be an important tool for protecting biodiversity in developing countries. Tourists have preferences for viewing charismatic species and for their conservation, but our understanding of these preferences remains limited. Using choice experiment surveys, we investigate tourists’ preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for the protection of the Ethiopian wolf ( Canis simensis) in Ethiopia’s Bale Mountains National Park. Results from a random parameter logit model show that tourists were willing to pay up to US$5.82/day/trip for increasing the wolf population from 200 to a more viable number of 250 but very little for a more substantial increase. Tourists also valued increases in the size of the protected area (PA) and access to the wolf habitat. The WTP is found to be dependent on tourists’ prior experience to Ethiopian PAs and whether they had viewed other unique species in the park. The findings suggest opportunities for ecotourism to support the Ethiopian wolf, which is in a critical state, and that the primary motivation for tourists’ support might be due to the wolf’s existence value.

Eavesdropping on a heterospecific alarm call in the giant root-rat (Tachyorytes macrocephalus), an important prey of the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis)

The giant root-rat of the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia has been reported to have a mutualistic relationship with a passerine, which involves eavesdropping on its alarm call. We tested this in a field playback experiment. Besides the alarm call, we included two sounds potentially acting as alarm cues and one as a control. Little reaction of root-rats was detected to the bird alarm call. However, intensive reaction was detected to an alarm call of the black-clawed brush-furred rat, a social rodent often occupying root-rats’ burrows. This result is understandable given the two rodents have the same principal predator, the Ethiopian wolf.

Foraging ecology of African wolves (Canis lupaster) and its implications for the conservation of Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis).

African wolves (AWs) are sympatric with endangered Ethiopian wolves (EWs) in parts of their range. Scat analyses have suggested a dietary overlap between AWs and EWs, raising the potential for exploitative competition, and a possible conservation threat to EWs. However, in contrast to that of the well-studied EW, the foraging ecology of AWs remains poorly characterized. Accordingly, we studied the foraging ecology of radio-collared AWs (n = 11 individuals) at two localities with varying levels of anthropogenic disturbance in the Ethiopian Highlands, the Guassa-Menz Community Conservation Area (GMCCA) and Borena-Saynt National Park (BSNP), accumulating 845 h of focal observation across 2952 feeding events. We also monitored rodent abundance and rodent trapping activity by local farmers who experience conflict with AWs. The AW diet consisted largely of rodents (22.0%), insects (24.8%), and goats and sheep (24.3%). Of the total rodents captured by farmers using local traps during peak barley production (July to November) in GMCCA, averaging 24.7 ± 8.5 rodents/hectare/day, 81% (N = 3009) were scavenged by AWs. Further, of all the rodents consumed by AWs, most (74%) were carcasses. These results reveal complex interactions between AWs and local farmers, and highlight the scavenging niche occupied by AWs in anthropogenically altered landscapes in contrast to the active hunting exhibited by EWs in more intact habitats. While AWs cause economic damage to local farmers through livestock predation, they appear to play an important role in scavenging pest rodents among farmlands, a pattern of behaviour which likely mitigates direct and indirect competition with EWs. We suggest two routes to promote the coexistence of AWs and EWs in the Ethiopian highlands: local education efforts highlighting the complex role AWs play in highland ecosystems to reduce their persecution, and enforced protection of intact habitats to preserve habitat preferred by EWs.

The giant that makes do with little: small and easy‐to‐leave home ranges found in the giant root‐rat

AbstractMammalian space‐use patterns are largely determined by the resources utilized as well as by given habitat characteristics, as can be illustrated by rodents displaying predominantly subterranean activity. These rodents are largely limited in their use of space by their burrow systems. This results in smaller home ranges than is usual for rodents of a similar size. However, there is little information regarding how stable these home ranges are over time. We studied space use in the giant root‐rat,Tachyoryctes macrocephalus, a large fossorial rodent endemic to the Bale Mountains of southern Ethiopia where it is the principal prey of the Ethiopian wolfCanis simensis. We radio‐tracked 22 root‐rats during a period of 36 days in the early dry season and 17 of them once again during a period of 37 days in the late dry season. The root‐rats occupied very small (around 100 m2) home ranges which were often tightly packed, especially on a wetland shore that was a part of the study locality, but displayed little overlap. Almost 30% of the radio‐collared root‐rats of either sex dispersed (80–428 m from their original home range) during the 5 months of the study, mostly in a period between the early and late dry season characterized by a decreasing food supply and the soil becoming dry and hard. Individuals who did not disperse during this time usually shifted their home range. Root‐rats living on the wetland shore, which were the largest and therefore likely competitively strongest individuals, shifted their home ranges into the wetland, likely for the purpose of increasing their food supply.

Convectively Assembled Monolayers of Colloidal Cubes: Evidence of Optimal Packings.

We employ a system of cubic colloids with rounded corners to study the close-packed monolayers that form via convective assembly. We show that by controlled solvent evaporation large densely packed monolayers of colloidal cubes are obtained. Using scanning electron microscopy and particle-tracking algorithms, we investigate the local order in detail and show that the obtained monolayers possess their predicted close-packed optimal packings, the Λ0-lattice and the Λ1-lattice, as well as the simple square-lattice and disordered packings. We further show that shape details of the cube corners are important for the final packing symmetry, where the frequency of the Λ1-lattice increases with decreasing roundness of the corners, whereas the frequency of the Λ0-lattice is unaffected. The formation of both optimal packings is found to be a consequence of the out-of-equilibrium formation process, which leads to small shifts in rows of cubes, thereby transforming the Λ1-lattice into the Λ0-lattice.

Interspecific Gene Flow Shaped the Evolution of the Genus Canis

SummaryThe evolutionary history of the wolf-like canids of the genus Canis has been heavily debated, especially regarding the number of distinct species and their relationships at the population and species level [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. We assembled a dataset of 48 resequenced genomes spanning all members of the genus Canis except the black-backed and side-striped jackals, encompassing the global diversity of seven extant canid lineages. This includes eight new genomes, including the first resequenced Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), one dhole (Cuon alpinus), two East African hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus), two Eurasian golden jackals (Canis aureus), and two Middle Eastern gray wolves (Canis lupus). The relationships between the Ethiopian wolf, African golden wolf, and golden jackal were resolved. We highlight the role of interspecific hybridization in the evolution of this charismatic group. Specifically, we find gene flow between the ancestors of the dhole and African hunting dog and admixture between the gray wolf, coyote (Canis latrans), golden jackal, and African golden wolf. Additionally, we report gene flow from gray and Ethiopian wolves to the African golden wolf, suggesting that the African golden wolf originated through hybridization between these species. Finally, we hypothesize that coyotes and gray wolves carry genetic material derived from a “ghost” basal canid lineage.

Rabies as a threat to wildlife.

The impact of infectious disease may become progressively more harmful to a species' survival as a wild population approaches an 'extinction vortex'. This risk is especially relevant for pathogens that spread rapidly and result in high mortality rates. Rabies, a virus that infects many mammalian species, can be efficiently transmitted through infected saliva, and is fatal without prior vaccination or rapid post-exposure prophylaxis (in humans). The authors conducted an extensive literature review to identify all wild mammal species reported to have been infected with rabies virus. They found reports of infection in 190 mammalian species, including 16 with elevated risk of extinction and two for which rabies is a direct conservation threat: the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). This paper discusses selected examples in which rabies has contributed to the population decline of a species of conservation concern. In addition, the authors note the importance of the transmission of rabies virus (RABV) from domestic dogs to wildlife, and the many challenges associated with the vaccination of wild animals. With this in mind, they present potential solutions to reduce the burden of rabies on wildlife. Once stable control of RABV is achieved in domestic dogs, remaining rabies threats to wildlife conservation can be addressed more effectively.

Competition between sympatric wolf taxa: an example involving African and Ethiopian wolves.

Carnivore populations are declining globally due to range contraction, persecution and prey depletion. One consequence of these patterns is increased range and niche overlap with other carnivores, and thus an elevated potential for competitive exclusion. Here, we document competition between an endangered canid, the Ethiopian wolf (EW), and the newly discovered African wolf (AW) in central Ethiopia. The diet of the ecological specialist EW was dominated by rodents, whereas the AW consumed a more diverse diet also including insects and non-rodent mammals. EWs used predominantly intact habitat, whereas AWs used mostly areas disturbed by humans and their livestock. We observed 82 encounters between the two species, of which 94% were agonistic. The outcomes of agonistic encounters followed a territory-specific dominance pattern, with EWs dominating in intact habitat and AWs in human-disturbed areas. For AWs, the likelihood of winning encounters also increased with group size. Rodent species consumed by EWs were also available in the human-disturbed areas, suggesting that these areas could be suitable habitat for EWs if AWs were not present. Increasing human encroachment not only affects the prey base of EWs, but also may impact their survival by intensifying competition with sympatric AWs.

Flow structures in a shallow channel with lateral bed-roughness variation

Highly heterogeneous floodplains can give rise to secondary flow structures responsible for the bulk of lateral momentum exchange. Quantifying the redistribution of momentum is required to predict lateral profiles of flow velocity and the associated water level in a river. In the work herein, we focus on studying secondary flow structures and the momentum redistribution associated with a lateral bed-roughness variation in a channel with low relative submergence of the roughness elements, h=k = 3, 2 and 1.5, where h is the flow depth and k is the roughness height. A series of laboratory experiments were performed in a flume containing rows of cubes. They were arranged in two types of regular patterns, with higher and lower frontal density, and placed side by side such that the bed roughness varies in the lateral direction. The measurements were performed using stereoscopic PIV in a vertical cross plane spanning between the two roughness types. The time-averaged and turbulence statistics of the three components of the velocity field were analyzed. First, we focus on the intensity of the secondary currents. As the flow becomes shallower (lower relative submergence), the cross-stream velocity normalized by the streamwise velocity increases. A large-scale secondary current at the border between the two roughnesses as observed in [1] (though in their case between smooth and rough regions) appears for h=k = 3. As h=k decreases, this structure reaches to the same size as the secondary flow generated by the roughness elements. Also, the discharge distribution between the two sides of the channel becomes less uniform with decreasing h=k. In this sense, the relative importance of the roughness difference increases with decreasing water depth. Moreover, higher discharge is observed on the side with higher equivalent sand roughness, contrary to what is observed for smooth-to-rough transition [1, 2]. Time series of the streamwise velocity fluctuations are calculated using Taylor’s “frozen turbulence” hypothesis. In this representation, streamwise velocity streaks are apparent for h=k = 3, but they appear to lose coherence for the most shallow case of h=k=1.5.

Going to the Dogs: Free-Ranging Domestic Dogs Threaten an Endangered Wild Canid through Competitive Interactions

Domestic dogs threaten wildlife globally, especially other canids. The spread of infectious disease from dogs threatens Ethiopian wolves, via interference and exploitation competition. Despite increasing threats to wildlife from dogs, competition between dogs and wild carnivores is relatively unstudied. This study seeks to understand the behavior and habitat use of free-ranging dogs in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia, and their interactions with other park users, through focal animal follows totaling > 150 hours. Dogs used the same areas as wolves, foraged throughout wolf habitat, and aggressively interacted with wolves in their territories. Wolves were actively displaced from foraging grounds by dogs, with dogs chasing wolves both while foraging alone or when moving with livestock. Direct competition for small mammals was not sustained by these results. Female dogs may make less extensive use of wolf range; they covered significantly less distance and interacted less aggressively with wolves. Domestic dogs are increasingly present in protected areas around the globe, and this study documents their negative impact on wild carnivores—both through direct interaction and use of habitat – highlighting the implications of dog presence for wildlife conservation.

Rabies and Distemper Outbreaks in Smallest Ethiopian Wolf Population.

Widespread deaths recently devastated the smallest known population of Ethiopian wolves. Of 7 carcasses found, all 3 tested were positive for rabies. Two wolves were subsequently vaccinated for rabies; 1 of these later died from canine distemper. Only 2 of a known population of 13 wolves survived.

Ethiopian wolves conflict with pastoralists in small Afroalpine relicts

AbstractThe peaceful coexistence between people and the rare Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis is being challenged by conflicts rising due to livestock predation by wild carnivores. Understanding the cultural and socio‐economic context of these conflicts can help to prevent negative attitudes and retaliatory killings, which have the potential to seriously compromise the survival of Ethiopian wolf populations in small Afroalpine relicts. With this objective in mind, questionnaire surveys were conducted in 140 households around the Aboi Gara range in north Ethiopia. Half of the households reported losing sheep and goats to wolves and golden jackals Canis aureus, with an annual average loss of 1.2 heads per year (10% of the average herd size), equivalent to 92 US$. Aboi Gara pastoralists considered wolves and jackals to be equally responsible for livestock killings. Households with large herds, closer to Afroalpine habitats, and using Afroalpine pastures for longer periods, reported more predation by wild carnivores. Most respondents (62%) expressed a positive attitude towards Ethiopian wolves, particularly literate people and those with smaller herds. We suggest ways to diminish conflict, including best livestock guarding techniques to lessen the risk of livestock predation by wild carnivores in Afroalpine areas.

Complete Genomic Sequence of Canine Distemper Virus from an Ethiopian Wolf

ABSTRACTCanine distemper virus (CDV) has been implicated in population declines of wildlife, including many threatened species. Here we present the full genome of CDV from an Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, the world’s rarest and most endangered canid.

Range contractions of the world's large carnivores.

The majority of the world's terrestrial large carnivores have undergone substantial range contractions and many of these species are currently threatened with extinction. However, there has been little effort to fully quantify the extent of large carnivore range contractions, which hinders our ability to understand the roles and relative drivers of such trends. Here we present and analyse a newly constructed and comprehensive set of large carnivore range contraction maps. We reveal the extent to which ranges have contracted since historical times and identify regions and biomes where range contractions have been particularly large. In summary, large carnivores that have experienced the greatest range contractions include the red wolf (Canis rufus) (greater than 99%), Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) (99%), tiger (Panthera tigris) (95%) and lion (Panthera leo) (94%). In general, the greatest range contractions occurred in Southeastern Asia and Africa. Motivated by the ecological importance of intact large carnivore guilds, we also examined the spatial extent of intact large carnivore guilds both for the entire world and regionally. We found that intact carnivore guilds occupy just 34% of the world's land area. This compares to 96% in historic times. Spatial modelling of range contractions showed that contractions were significantly more likely in regions with high rural human population density, cattle density or cropland. Our results offer new insights into how best to prevent further range contractions for the world's largest carnivores, which will assist efforts to conserve these species and their important ecological effects.

Feasibility and efficacy of oral rabies vaccine SAG2 in endangered Ethiopian wolves

Diseases are a major cause of population declines in endangered populations of several canid species. Parenteral vaccination efforts to protect Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis) from rabies have targeted the domestic dog reservoir, or the wolves themselves in response to confirmed outbreaks. Oral vaccination offers a more cost-efficient, safe and proactive approach to protect Ethiopian wolves and other threatened canids from rabies. Field trials of the oral vaccine Rabigen® SAG2Dog were undertaken in the Bale Mountains of southeastern Ethiopia. Four different bait types and three delivery methods were tested in twelve Ethiopian wolf packs, and the oral vaccine (using the preferred bait) was trialled in three packs. Vaccine uptake and immunization rates were measured through direct observations and in live-trapped animals through the assessment of biomarker levels and serological status. Commercial baits were never taken by wolves; goat meat baits had the highest uptake, compared to rodent and intestine baits. Targeted delivery from horseback and nocturnal delivery within a pack’s territory performed favourably compared to random bait distribution. Bait uptake by non-target species was lowest during the nocturnal blind distribution. Of 21 wolves trapped after vaccination, 14 were positive for the biomarker iophenoxic acid (i.e. ingested the bait and most likely pierced the sachet with the vaccine). Of these, 86% (n=12/14) had levels considered sufficient to provide protective immunity to wildlife (⩾0.20IU/ml), and 50% (n=7/14) demonstrated antibody titres above the universally recognised threshold (⩾0.5IU/ml) -the baseline average was 0.09IU/ml (n=12 wolves). All but one of the wolves vaccinated in 2014 were alive 14months later. Our trials confirm the potential for SAG2, delivered in a goat meat bait, to effectively protect Ethiopian wolves against rabies, supporting the initiative for a more efficient and proactive approach to manage and eventually eliminate rabies in Ethiopian wolf populations.

Prey depletion as a threat to the world's large carnivores.

Large terrestrial carnivores are an ecologically important, charismatic and highly endangered group of species. Here, we assess the importance of prey depletion as a driver of large carnivore endangerment globally using lists of prey species for each large carnivore compiled from the literature. We consider spatial variation in prey endangerment, changes in endangerment over time and the causes of prey depletion, finding considerable evidence that loss of prey base is a major and wide-ranging threat among large carnivore species. In particular, the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi), tiger (Panthera tigris), dhole (Cuon alpinus) and Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) all have at least 40% of their prey classified as threatened on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List and, along with the leopard (Panethra pardus), all of these species except the Ethiopian wolf have at least 50% of their prey classified as declining. Of the 494 prey species in our analysis, an average of just 6.9% of their ranges overlap protected areas. Together these results show the importance of a holistic approach to conservation that involves protecting both large carnivores directly and the prey upon which they depend.

Laboratory Based Surveillance of Rabies Incidence in Ethiopian Wolf at Bale National Park, Ethiopia

In the Bale National Park s of Ethiopia, an estimated population of 250 wolves of greater than one year age exists, according to Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Authority (EWCA) pack observation done in 2010. A new outbreak of Ethiopian Wolf was observed between July 2015 and September, 2015 at Bale Mountains National Park. A collaborative investigation between Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI) and Ethiopian Wild Life Conservation Authority (EWCA) was signed to undertake laboratory based surveillance of the dead wolves. Based on the MoU, field visits were made to collect and test rabies suspected samples for the presence of Lyssavirus antigens using the direct flouresent antibody test (FAT). Five samples collected for Lyssavirus diagnostic testing, demonstrated a positive result for the presence of Lyssavirus antigen whereas four samples revealed negative results using the direct flouresent antibody test. The rabies outbreak toll reached to fifteen wolves, of which nine samples were laboratory confirmed, and other six wolves were as epi-linked to the rabies laboratory confirmation result. Suspected dog rabies cases in and around the park was also observed some months before the outbreak occurred. The prevalence of wolf rabies in July was 2/250 (0.008), whereas it was 3/250 (0.012) in August, 2015. The death report of 4/250 (0.016) Ethiopian Wolf was registered as negative dFAT result in September, 2015. The other 6/250 (0.024) death cases were not submitted for laboratory confirmation. Human exposures occurred between these two months was zero. Mass vaccination of wildlife with oral vaccine is underway intensively to prevent non outbreak packs of the animals in the park to maintain the herd immunity level of the wolf population. Further molecular detection of the evolutionary history of wolf rabies in domestic dogs in and around the park and other wild animals’ rabies reservoirs should be undertaken.