Ethical Decision Research Articles

Empathy, Moral Sensitivity, and Prosocial Behavior Among Medical Undergraduates in a South Indian Tertiary Care Teaching Institute: An Analytical Cross-Sectional Study.

Empathy, moral sensitivity, and prosocialness are critical traits for medical professionals, as they affect patient care quality and ethical decision-making. These traits help address psychological complexities like stress and burnout in medical practice. Despite their importance, the relationships between these traits, especially among medical students, remain underexplored. This study aims to assess empathy, moral sensitivity, and prosocialness among medical students in South India, focusing on gender differences and their associations. This cross-sectional study was conducted at Saveetha Medical College, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, with 369 medical undergraduates. Data were collected using three standardized tools: the Interpersonal Reactivity Index for empathy, the Moral Sensitivity Questionnaire, and the Prosocialness Scale for Adults. The questionnaire, including demographic data, was administered online with anonymity and consent. Descriptive statistics summarized demographic data. Inferential analyses, including t-tests, chi-square tests, Pearson correlations, and multivariate regression, examined relationships between empathy, moral sensitivity, pro-social behavior, and demographics. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Ethical approval was obtained from Saveetha Medical College's Ethics Committee. The mean age of participants was 20.5 ± 2 years, with 183 males (49.6%) and 186 females (50.4%). The majority were first-year students (29.8%), followed by second-year (19.5%) and final-year part I students (19.2%).Final professional part II students and interns comprised 15.4% and 16%, respectively. Females scored significantly higher in empathy domains like perspective-taking (15 ± 3.3 vs. 14 ± 3.4), fantasy (14.4 ± 4 vs. 13.6 ± 3.3), and empathetic concern (15.3 ± 3.5 vs. 14.2 ± 3.1), with p values <0.05. Overall, 186 females (50.4%) had a mean empathy score of 59 ± 9, compared to 183 males (49.6%) with 56.2 ± 7.1 (Cohen's d = 0.33). In moral sensitivity, females scored higher in modifying autonomy (7 ± 2.3 vs. 6.3 ± 2.2), structuring moral meaning (4.6 ± 2 vs. 4.15 ± 1.6), and expressing benevolence (16 ± 4 vs. 15 ± 4), with significant differences (p < 0.05). The total moral sensitivity score was higher in females (57 ± 10 vs. 54 ± 9), with a moderate effect size (Cohen's d = 0.3). Males scored higher in prosocialness, with 183 males (49.6%) scoring 54 ± 7, compared to 186 females (50.4%) with 51.5 ± 7.2 (Cohen's d = 0.3). Weak but significant correlations were found between empathy and prosocialness (r = 0.132, p = 0.011) and between moral sensitivity and prosocialness (r = 0.479, p < 0.001). Regression analysis identified gender, prosocial behavior, and specific moral sensitivity dimensions as significant predictors of empathy scores. This study revealed significant gender differences in empathy, moral sensitivity, and prosocialness among medical students. Females scored higher in empathy and moral sensitivity, whereas males showed greater prosocial behavior. The positive correlations between empathy and prosocialness and between moral sensitivity and prosocialness highlight their interconnectedness. Educational interventions that target empathy and moral sensitivity could help nurture more compassionate, ethical healthcare professionals. Future research should explore how these traits evolve throughout medical education.

Embedded values-like shape ethical reasoning of large language models on primary care ethical dilemmas

ObjectiveThis article uses the framework of Schwartz's values theory to examine whether the embedded values-like profile within large language models (LLMs) impact ethical decision-making dilemmas faced by primary care. It specifically aims to evaluate whether each LLM exhibits a distinct values-like profile, assess its alignment with general population values, and determine whether latent values influence clinical recommendations. MethodsThe Portrait Values Questionnaire-Revised (PVQ-RR) was submitted to each LLM (Claude, Bard, GPT-3.5, and GPT-4) 20 times to ensure reliable and valid responses. Their responses were compared to a benchmark derived from a diverse international sample consisting of over 53,000 culturally diverse respondents who completed the PVQ-RR. Four vignettes depicting prototypical professional quandaries involving conflicts between competing values were presented to the LLMs. The option selected by each LLM and the strength of its recommendation were evaluated to determine if underlying values-like impact output. ResultsEach LLM demonstrated a unique values-like profile. Universalism and self-direction were prioritized, while power and tradition were assigned less importance than population benchmarks, suggesting potential Western-centric biases. Four clinical vignettes involving value conflicts were presented to the LLMs. Preliminary indications suggested that embedded values-like influence recommendations. Significant variances in confidence strength regarding chosen recommendations materialized between models, proposing that further vetting is required before the LLMs can be relied on as judgment aids. However, the overall selection of preferences aligned with intrinsic value hierarchies. ConclusionThe distinct intrinsic values-like embedded within LLMs shape ethical decision-making, which carries implications for their integration in primary care settings serving diverse populations. For context-appropriate, equitable delivery of AI-assisted healthcare globally it is essential that LLMs are tailored to align with cultural outlooks.

An Evaluation Index System to Assess Nurse Competency in Enhanced Recovery After Surgery Programs: A Delphi Study

PurposeTo construct an index system to evaluate the competencies of nurses in enhanced recovery after surgery programs and provide a scientific foundation for their training and assessment. MethodsUtilizing a literature review and semi-structured interviews, a preliminary indicator system was constructed. Based on the preliminary indicator system, a Delphi questionnaire was developed and utilized to achieve consensus among experts in two rounds of Delphi studies. The indicators were selected based on a mean importance score greater than 4 and a coefficient of variation less than 0.25. The weights of the indicators were calculated using the Analytic Hierarchy Process. ResultsThe study developed a system to that evaluates the competencies of nurses involved in ERAS programs, offering a reference for their training and evaluation. The final index system includes 7 primary indicators, 20 secondary indicators, and 66 tertiary indicators. The primary indicators consist of competencies in the following components: 1) Direct clinical practice (20 items); 2) Expert coaching and guidance (9 items); 3) Consultation (6 items); 4) Research (7 items); 5) Leadership (11 items); 6) Collaboration (8 items); and 7) Ethical decision-making (5 items). ConclusionsThe developed competency evaluation index system is reliable and can serve as a foundation for the selection, training, and assessment of ERAS nurses.

Reducing the incidence of biased algorithmic decisions through feature importance transparency: an empirical study

ABSTRACT As firms move towards data-driven decision-making using algorithmic systems, concerns are raised regarding the lack of transparency of these systems which could have ramifications related to users’ trust and the potential for provoking discriminatory decisions. Although previous research has developed methods to improve algorithmic transparency, little empirical evidence exists regarding the extent of the effectiveness of these approaches. Drawing upon Rest’s theory of ethical decision-making and the literature on algorithmic transparency and bias, we investigate the effectiveness of feature importance (FI), a common transparency-enhancing approach, which illustrates the nature and the weights of the features utilised by an algorithm. Through an online experiment employing a fictitious tool that provided recommendations for selecting employees for a promotion-related training programme, we find that FI is effective when biased recommendations include direct discrimination (i.e. when individuals are treated less favourably on protected grounds such as gender); but is of little assistance when discrimination is indirect (i.e. when a criterion or practice that is apparently neutral, disadvantages a group of individuals who are of a protected class). Additionally, we propose a new transparency approach, using aggregated demographic information, to accompany FI in indirect discrimination circumstances and report the results of testing its effects.

Models of Ethical Decision Making in the Field of Healthcare Services – A Literature Review

Models of Ethical Decision Making in the Field of Healthcare Services – A Literature Review

PROVERBS AND SAYINGS REFLECTED IN GIBI BITHAI

Proverbs and sayings are a form of verbal art. They enhance the appeal of speakers, singers, and authors, making them more intriguing and relatable by facilitating a stronger connection with their audiences or readers. Proverbs and sayings are powerful tools for sharing knowledge due to their interesting, relatable, and culturally meaningful nature. Although they are different, most of them are similar. One of the only epic works of the Bodos, GibiBithai, has a large number of folklore elements. GibiBithai is a verse relating to Bathouism, and there are many good examples of proverbs and sayings in various chapters. These are closely related to Bathouism and Bodo society. The study has been done through descriptive analysis with a close reading method. In GibiBithai, the author BihuramBoro has used proverbs and sayings to enhance the quality of the epic or to make it attractive to the recipients or the reader. These are often said in a tricky or indirect way to make you think and help you understand. These are like wisdom puzzles that you have to think about to solve. The proverbs and sayings of the GibiBithai are collected and gathered from the Bodo society prevalent among them. These are mostly related to their daily conversations and different situations. They serve as timeless guidelines for navigating numerous elements of life and making ethical decisions. BihuramBoro has employed proverbs and sayings to improve the quality of his work by making it more appealing to the receivers or readers. Furthermore, by documenting these in the book, many forgotten and endangered proverbs and sayings have been brought back to life.

The Relationship Between Moral Sensitivities and Ethical Decisions of Dentistry Faculty Students

The Relationship Between Moral Sensitivities and Ethical Decisions of Dentistry Faculty Students

“Let the Driver off the Hook?” moral decisions of autonomous cars and their impact on consumer well-being

Equipped with sophisticated, AI-based driver assistance systems, passenger cars are becoming increasingly intelligent. It seems that in a matter of a few years, fully autonomous vehicles will operate without any driver intervention. In this context, researchers are addressing the question of how fully automated vehicles should make decisions in critical situations. Should they spare the driver, children jumping out into the road or elderly people standing on the sidewalk? Projects such as MIT’s Moral Machine are investigating the preferences of people from different nations and cultures for ethical decision algorithms. Evaluations of these automated decisions and how the may impact consumer perception and well-being are still scarce. In our experimental study, participants experienced a simulator-based driving situation in a fully autonomous car, after which they were confronted with alternative scenarios requiring automated action by the car in a critical situation. We measured the emotional status and well-being of our test-persons (N=33) in those critical situations using facial expression recognition (FER), electroencephalography (EEG), and standardized questions. The results show that there are detectable differences between the scenarios with respect to emotions as well as subjective well-being and behavioral intentions in the test group’s responses to the questionnaire. Regarding FER and EEG, no statistically significant differences could be shown due to the small subsample.

Team Factors in Ethical Decision Making: A Content Analysis of Interviews with Scientists and Engineers

The ethical decision making of researchers has historically been studied from an individualistic perspective. However, researchers rarely work alone, and they typically experience ethical dilemmas in a team context. In this mixed-methods study, 67 scientists and engineers working at a public R1 (very high research activity) university in the United States responded to a survey that asked whether they had experienced or observed an ethical dilemma while working in a research team. Among these, 30 respondents agreed to be interviewed about their experiences using a think-aloud protocol. A total of 40 unique ethical incidents were collected across these interviews. Qualitative data from interview transcripts were then systematically content-analyzed by multiple independent judges to quantify the overall ethicality of team decisions as well as several team characteristics, decision processes, and situational factors. The results demonstrated that team formalistic orientation, ethical championing, and the use of ethical decision strategies were all positively related to the overall ethicality of team decisions. Additionally, the relationship between ethical championing and overall team decision ethicality was moderated by psychological safety and moral intensity. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

A Delphi Method Exploration of Performance Pressures and Ethical Leadership Compromises in Business Organizations

A deep understanding of the dynamics between performance pressures and ethical leadership becomes crucial in an era of stressful economic recovery. This research explores the complex relationship between organizational performance pressures and ethical leadership, focusing on how these pressures impact ethical decision-making and the challenges of maintaining ethical integrity in demanding environments. Employing a convenience sampling method and the rank-type Delphi method, the study engaged 40 experts from both academic and practical fields to identify and rank key performance pressures that compromise ethical leadership. Significant pressures identified include the imperative to generate positive financial reports, achieve greater efficiency, withstand competitive pressures, and pursue aggressive growth strategies, all eroding ethical leadership. These pressures lead to unethical practices, such as falsifying financial reports, exploiting working conditions, unfair competition, and aggressive merger and acquisition tactics. The findings underscore the critical need for leaders to recognize and manage these pressures effectively to foster an environment conducive to ethical leadership. This study contributes valuable insights into the mechanisms by which performance pressures undermine ethical leadership and highlights the importance of cultivating a culture that promotes normative behavior and addresses ethical challenges, thereby enriching the existing body of knowledge on organizational ethics and leadership.

Moral Distress and Its Determinants among Nursing Students in an Italian University: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Moral Distress (MD) is a unique form of distress that occurs when people believe they know the ethically correct action to take but are constrained from doing so. Limited clinical experience and insufficient ethical knowledge contribute to nursing students' MD, which can potentially cause negative outcomes. The aims of this study are: (1) to describe the MD intensity of nursing students, and (2) to analyze differences and associations between MD intensity and socio-demographic and academic variables. A cross-sectional study design with a convenience sample of the second, third, and delayed graduation students was included; only students willing to participate and who had attended their scheduled internships in the last six months were eligible for inclusion. To measure the level of MD, we used the It-ESMEE. We collected socio-demographic and academic variables. The data collection occurred from January 2024 to March 2024. The students who adhered to the collection were N = 344. The findings reveal that the students perceived a high level of MD in situations related to clinical internship and class. They perceived higher levels of MD when nursing was not their first career choice, were separated or divorced, did not have children, and were not an employed student. The overall MD score is statistically significantly lower among students who had nursing as their first career choice (β = -0.267, p < 0.05), have children (β = -0.470, p < 0.01), and are employed (β = -0.417, p < 0.01). In contrast, being separated or divorced (β = 0.274, p < 0.01) was associated with a higher MD score. This study has some limitations: data reflect a local context, and the findings may not be generalizable to other regions or educational environments. Additionally, students' recollections of their experiences could be influenced by the passage of time, and there may be a selection bias since only students willing to participate were included. The findings suggest that nursing education programs should incorporate more robust training in ethical decision-making and stress management to better prepare students for the moral challenges in their professional practice.

A Conceptual Study on Role of Business Ethics and Corporate Governance in the Growth of Organization

The main goal of any business worldwide has been shifted from greater productivity and profit maximization to sustainable development. If an organisation opt for long-term objectives, it must go for long-run sustainability. Organisational ethics is a wider topic which is crucial for any business success. Ethical behavior is an important element of sustainability. The word "sustainability" has come out, along with social responsibility and corporate governance, as important business situation today. This paper focuses on integration of ethical climate and culture in an organisation that influences ethical decision making and outcomes, which result into sustainable development. It is a challenge for the organisations to remain ethical to stakeholder under the uncertain situation. They are expected to benefit the society in large. Keywords: sustainable development; corporate governance; business ethics; corporate social responsibility; environmental factors.

THE BHAGAVAD GITA: A TIMELESS GUIDE TO ETHICAL LIVING AND PERSONAL GROWTH THROUGH KNOWLEDGE AND ENLIGHTENMENT

The Bhagavad Gita, a revered Hindu scripture, stands as a profound philosophical treatise offering timeless life lessons that transcend cultural and religious boundaries. This study delves into the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, exploring its influence on personal growth, ethical decision-making, and the pursuit of knowledge. By examining core concepts such as duty, selflessness, resilience, and enlightenment, this paper highlights the relevance of the Gita’s wisdom in contemporary life. The objective is to demonstrate how the Bhagavad Gita’s teachings remain pertinent today, providing guidance for leading a meaningful and ethical life in the modern world.

Navigating the Nexus of Bioethics and Geopolitics: Implications for Global Health Security and Scientific Collaboration.

Bioethics plays a pivotal role in guiding ethical decision-making within the realm of medical research and healthcare. However, the influence of geopolitics on bioethical considerations, particularly regarding bioweapons research, remains an underexplored area. This study delves into the uncharted territory of how international political interests can intersect with bioethical principles, potentially shaping collaborative efforts and global health policies related to bioweapons research. Through a hypothetical scenario involving a hypothetical pathogen, a collaborative effort between unspecified countries, we examine the implications of such cooperation on global health governance, with a specific focus on bioweapons research. Ethical dilemmas surrounding responsible research, potential risks and benefits, equitable distribution of findings, and biosafety measures are explored. This analysis underscores the importance of transparent and responsible practices in bioweapons research amidst geopolitical tensions. By striking a balance between national interests and international solidarity, we advocate for robust bioethical frameworks to navigate such collaborations for the collective well-being of humanity and to mitigate potential risks associated with bioweapons research.

Teaching ethics and ethical leadership with the Harvard Everest simulation

PurposeThis is a step-by-step guide for teaching Ethics and Ethical Leadership utilizing the Harvard Everest Leadership and Teams Simulation, V.3. The suggested approach is focused on facilitating a discussion and coaching students to recognize and solve problems by applying moral theory explicitly and deliberately. Applying this approach can also help them develop a habit of analyzing one’s own and others' behavior using ethical lenses and principles of authentic leadership. It offers practical debrief steps and specific discussion questions that can be used as a standalone resource or alongside the Harvard teaching note accompanying the simulation.Design/methodology/approachThis innovative approach enables teaching and coaching students on the ethical aspects of their leadership and decision-making based on this hands-on experience with the Harvard Everest Leadership and Teams Simulation. This approach enriches the original HBR teaching suggestions by enabling students to recognize moral dilemmas, confront typical rationalizations and practice ethical actions and decision-making in real time.FindingsIn-class discussion and student reflection assignments provide evidence of the method's effectiveness in translating values into impactful insights and enhanced likelihood of ethical behaviors in real-life scenarios. Students’ end-of-class feedback and course evaluations often cite the benefits of using the Everest simulation as a backdrop for raising self-awareness and practicing ethical decision-making.Practical implicationsThe approach discussed in the paper can serve as a flexible framework for analyzing and debriefing the HBR Everest simulation and other simulations, “survival scenario” exercises and activities designed to teach and facilitate practicing ethical leadership, authentic leadership and ethical decision making. It is adaptable and can be effectively applied across various disciplines centered around ethical leadership, teamwork, communication and decision-making in higher education and business.Originality/valueHarvard Everest Leadership and Teams Simulation is among the most popular ones in business education and is used by teachers worldwide (Roberto &amp; Edmondson, 2017). While a comprehensive teaching note on communication and group dynamics is available through Harvard Business Publishing, it still needs to address the ethical issues students face during the simulation. This paper provides a roadmap for instructors who want to improve the student experience with ethical decision-making and ethical leadership.

Moral intensity and ethical decision-making: a combined importance-performance map analysis for professional accountants

Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of moral intensity on the ethical decision-making process of professional accountants based on a combined importance-performance map analysis (cIPMA). Design/methodology/approach Using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) on data from 309 accountants, the study examined the relationships between four moral intensity dimensions: magnitude of consequences, social consensus, probability of effect and concentration of effect, and the ethical decision-making process. The study also methodologically complemented by a combined importance-performance map analysis and necessary condition analysis. Findings The findings reveal that moral recognition and moral judgment are necessary conditions for predicting accountants’ moral intent. However, in terms of importance and performance, moral recognition plays a less significant role compared to moral judgment. Furthermore, the influence of moral intensity dimensions is pronounced on moral recognition, while their influence on moral judgment and moral intent is more context dependent. This is also exhibited in the combined importance-performance map analysis results. Research limitations/implications The study highlights the importance of considering specific ethical dilemmas and the differential influence of moral intensity when developing strategies to strengthen ethical decision-making in the accounting profession. Future research is encouraged to explore how cultural backgrounds and diverse settings influence accountants’ ethical decision-making with tailored measurement tools for a more comprehensive understanding. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the study is among the first to complement the results of PLS-SEM with importance-performance map analysis and necessary condition analysis to examine the relationship between moral intensity and ethical decision-making of accountants.

The Effects of Moral Intensity and Moral Disengagement on Rule Violations: Occupational Safety in UK-based Construction Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic

AbstractWe take an ethics theory perspective to examine rule violations and workarounds in the UK construction industry in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The UK construction sector remained largely operational during lockdowns in the UK, providing an opportunity to explore the ways in which construction workers made ethical decisions in situ, related to health and safety at work, and COVID-19 rules. We conducted 22 semi-structured interviews with participants from 11 organisations (3 major construction companies and 8 subcontractors) during November 2021 to January 2022. Our qualitative analysis focused on coding responses based on the use of moral disengagement tactics, and the dimensions of moral intensity (magnitude of consequences, social consensus, probability of effect, temporal immediacy, proximity and, concentration of effect). We found instances of ethical dilemmas, including conflicts between compliance with organisational health and safety rules, and following COVID-19 rules. Our analysis showed that rule violations were often justified based on moral disengagement tactics, particularly cognitive reconstrual, obscuring personal agency, disregarding consequences and vilification of the victims. Furthermore, moral intensity played a significant role in making ethical decisions about violating rules. Moral intensity was most influential (across dimensions) for moral disengagement based on cognitive reconstrual (e.g., justifications for choosing to follow one set of rules over another). Social context was highly influential in workers’ ethical decisions, including organisational and group social norms, but wider societal attitudes towards the COVID-19 pandemic, also played a significant role. We discuss the implications for business ethics theory, policy and practice, including recommendations for businesses and policymakers.

Expectant Casualty Care Training Needs for Future Conflicts.

The demands of future large-scale combat operations may require medics and corpsmen to increasingly perform expectant casualty care (ECC). However, no detailed guidelines currently exist for providing ECC within military medicine. To guide the development of education and training guidelines and advance team training of both medics and non-medics, an in-depth understanding is first needed regarding caregivers' experiences providing ECC in recent conflicts as well as perceived training gaps. Therefore, this study explored the experiences of medics and physicians providing ECC and investigated their perceptions of training needs in this area for future conflicts characterized by large-scale combat operations and prolonged casualty care operational settings. We conducted an engaged qualitative phenomenological study to explore ECC training needs for future conflicts. We interviewed 9 senior health care professionals (medics and physicians) who had extensive combat and deployment experiences and served primarily in the Role 1 environment. The interviews averaged 45 min each and were conducted via phone. To analyze this interview data, we reviewed the interview transcripts and then noted terms, phrases, and concepts within the interview transcripts that we found to be salient to answering the research question. Our team then met to review these codes and grouped them into categories. These categories served as the themes of this study that illustrated the participants' perceptions and experiences. Five themes emerged from our data: (1) There is a current gap in ECC training for enlisted Role 1 caregivers throughout the military; (2) ECC training is needed to shift organizational culture; (3) ECC training should be comprehensive; (4) ECC training should be deliberate; and (5) Time is the greatest challenge to implementing ECC training. Our participants noted that developing guidelines and filling training gaps is not only critical for preparing Role 1 providers for effective and ethical military medical decision-making but also for addressing death and dying on the battlefield and building moral resilience across the medical corps. Our results provide direction for development of ECC clinical guidance and collective team training recommendations. Following these guidelines may increase life-saving capabilities on the far-forward battlefield and equip medical directors and medics to provide ethical and compassionate care to those who cannot be saved in the setting of limited resources and evacuation opportunities.

Understanding QRPs and Blatant Misconduct in Applied Linguistics Research: A Book Review of Addressing Questionable Research Practices in Applied Linguistics: A Practical Guide

his book explores the ethical gray area of Questionable Research Practices (QRPs), including its similarities and differences (Butler et al., 2017; Ravn &amp; Sørensen, 2021). It lies between responsible research conduct and clear misconduct like falsification, fabrication, plagiarism. It helps Applied Linguistics (henceforth AL) researchers to carry out ethical research which addresses the ambiguity and debate surrounding certain practices, such as data sharing and outlier management. They are often not well covered in traditional research ethics training. There is a need for AL researcher to identify the good, the bad, and the ugly in the research practices (Banks et al., 2016). To enhance understanding and ethical decision-making, the book provides a taxonomy of 58 QRPs, lesson plans, suggested readings, and discussion scenarios for use in research methods courses and workshops.

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Teaching, Learning, and Assessing in the Information and Artificial Intelligence Era

This study reviews existing taxonomies and proposes a new educational taxonomy that fulfills the educational needs of the current era, the information and Artificial Intelligence (AI) era. The review of previous educational taxonomies revealed that although they provide insights into establishing educational objectives and learning outcomes, they still need to address recent changes and challenges in learning processes. To (1) integrate the new realities into the landscape of learning (i.e., Education for sustainable development (ESD), soft skills development, and AI), (2) maintain the classroom as the formal venue for learning, and (3) strengthen the position and role of instructors as facilitators, a new six-category two-fold hierarchy-based taxonomy is proposed (AlAfnan Taxonomy): (1) Knowledge and Comprehension, (2) Synthesis and Evaluation, (3) Ethical and Moral Reasoning, (4) Application and Strategic Thinking, (5) Creativity and Innovation, and (6) Lifelong Learning and Adaptability. The taxonomy begins with foundational levels of ‘Knowledge and Comprehension’ stressing the importance of understanding fundamental realities and concepts within specific fields. Then, it addresses the importance of ‘Synthesis and Evaluation’ as essential and crucial skills for navigating an information-rich world. ‘Ethical and Moral Reasoning’ highlights the significance of ethical decision-making, moral frameworks, and culture-based diversity. Further, the taxonomy introduces ‘Application and Strategic Thinking’, emphasizing the practical use of knowledge in real-world scenarios and the ability to devise long-term plans. ‘Creativity and Innovation’ are essential drivers of progress in an era characterized by rapid technological advancements encouraging learners to explore novel solutions and approaches. Lastly, ‘Lifelong Learning and Adaptability’ underscores the necessity of continuous learning and flexibility in response to evolving circumstances, ensuring students and graduates remain competitive and relevant throughout their lives. By nurturing a multifaceted skill set encompassing critical thinking, ethical awareness, practical application, creativity, and adaptability, this taxonomy aims to equip learners with the necessary tools to excel in a dynamic and complex world, making it indispensable for modern education.