Ethical Doctrine Research Articles

Ibn Rushd’s Middle Commentary on the Poetics, or the Ethical Education

Abstract In his Talkhīṣ Kitāb Arisṭūṭālīs fī l-Shiʿr (“Middle Commentary on Aristotle’s Poetics”) Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 595/1198) strictly defines poetic statements (al-aqāwīl al-shiʿriyya) as imaginative (mutakhayyila) statements that imitate the good and the evil, and aim at inciting people to virtue and deterring them from vice. Yet the traces of the Aristotelian ethical doctrine in this Commentary are not restricted to this link to virtue ethics, as the entire text follows at different levels the division between virtue/vice and good/evil. Ibn Rushd also refers to the teaching of ethics when discussing the object of poetic imitation (al-tashbīh wa-l-muḥākāt), the different natures he distinguishes among poets, and the genres of panegyric (madīḥ) and satire (hijāʾ). However, recent scholarship tends to view the Poetics in the Islamic context as a fundamentally logical treatise. Following the Alexandrian tradition, the falāsifa sought, at least since al-Fārābī (d. 339/950), to justify and explain the position of the Poetics in the Organon by defining, for example, the logical and psychological mechanisms of the poetical syllogism. More specifically, philosophers drew parallels between the role of imagination (takhayyul) in the poetical context and the role of assent or conviction (taṣdīq) in the other logical arts, and in particular in the Rhetoric (al-Khiṭāba). The purpose of this contribution is to demonstrate that the Poetics, according to Ibn Rushd, is a treatise that combines logic and ethics and determines in that respect the conditions and the rules of a practical education of the citizens. Like the rhetoric whose political value was already determined, poetics also plays a role in defining the nature and the content of the poetical statements that are to be employed in order to encourage people to virtuous actions – that is, the very condition for a virtuous political, and thus, a happy life. Straddling between logic and ethics, poetry is therefore fundamentally political.

O „deonotologicznych” i „utylitarnych” decyzjach w dylematach etycznych opartych na „dylemacie wagonika” (the Trolley Problem)

Ethical dilemmas facing respondents with a choice between sacrificing the lives of a smaller number of people to save a larger number, formulated in correspondence to the famous Trolley Problem, have been of enduring interest almost since the Philippa Foot’s presentation of the canonical version of this problem. In more recent literature, and especially in publications reporting the results of empirical research, decisions of answerers declaring abstention from taking action that would result in saving a larger group of potential victims at the cost of sacrificing the lives of fewer people have come to be referred to as “deontological” choices. On the other hand, declarations of readiness to take such actions are referred to as “utilitarian” or (less frequently) “consequentialist” choices. The aim of the article is to demonstrate the shortcomings of using the aforementioned labels. The argumentation is supported by empirical material collected in the years 2020–2022 among students of the University of Łódź (N = 302). The analysis of justifications explaining the motives behind both types of decisions left by the respondents shows that in numerous cases, “deontological” decisions, that is, passive decisions, actually stemmed from premises much closer to consequentialist ethics than deontological attitudes. Similarly, active behaviour was not always the outcome of utilitarian motives. The results of our research clearly indicate that the dominant, simplified perception of these choices in the literature leads to a distorted picture of the moral attitudes of respondents, thus posing the danger of drawing false conclusions. We claim that distinguishing between attitudes adopted by respondents in dilemmas based on the Trolley Problem should not refer to ethical doctrines. Instead, judging the moral attitudes of respondents requires an analysis of the motives behind the decisions they make at the very least.

Симбиоз «поэтического» и этического начал в автобиографической трилогии Л. Н. Толстого

The paper is devoted to the analysis of the artistic specifics of Leo Tolstoy’s autobiographical novels “Childhood”, “Adolescence”, “Youth”. The aim of the study is to propose a new interpretation of the artistic structure of Tolstoy’s trilogy, associated with understanding the special role of the symbiosis of the ethical and “poetic” principles. The author proves that the forms of “poetization of the world” found in Tolstoy’s trilogy are an essential element of Tolstoy’s autobiography. These forms most effectively influenced the expression of the writer’s ethical doctrine and predetermined the principles of the unique autobiographical worldview of the text’s creator. The scientific originality of the study stems from a new approach to understanding the autobiographical whole from the point of view of the interaction between two structural and organizing principles, the ethical one, associated with showing the moral growth of a person, and the “poetic” one, which serves as a means of expressing the author’s special ideological position. The main result of the study amounts to the conclusion about the symbiosis of the “poetic” and the ethical, which formed the basis of L. Tolstoy’s aesthetic discovery in his artistic autobiography. Only taking into account the symbiosis of the two principles will reveal the deep philosophical meaning of Tolstoy’s work.

Obligation, Informed Consent, and Health-Care Reforms in China

Abstract Drawing on recent jurisprudential literature that emphasizes the role and function performed by obligation, this article examines how the ethical doctrine of informed consent has been implemented in the context of health-care reforms in China. It argues that, while the Chinese incorporation of informed consent has sought to empower patients, the major medical laws and social policies fail to instantiate the obligations. Along with this failure, the Chinese medical laws have also failed to secure the bond of trust between them. This article also points out that a rounded analysis of the implementation of informed consent in China must take into account the obligation and function of the major components of the health-care delivery system other than physicians and hospitals, such as health-care insurance schemes.

Between Faith and Judgement: Kant’s Dual Conception of Moral Certainty

Abstract There are two main meanings in Kant’s concept of moral certainty (moralische Gewissheit, certitudo moralis): first, it applies to the kind of certainty embodied in rational faith in the existence of God and a future life; second, it applies to the conscientiousness (Gewissenhaftigkeit) required of an agent in the practice of moral judgement. Despite the growing attention to Kant’s theory of conscience and his concept of conscientiousness, this article is the first to discuss ‘moral certainty’ as the aim of ‘conscientiousness’ and to highlight the relevance of both notions in regard to moral education and the purposes of Kant’s ethical doctrines of method.

Informed consent – Ethical doctrine and a legal mandate

Informed consent is not only an ethical doctrine but also a legal mandate in medical practice and clinical research. The concept of consent has changed over the last few decades from doctor-focused to patient-focused. This provides adequate knowledge to the patient about disease and treatment options so that the patient and doctor can make shared decisions. Respecting the patient’s autonomy, disclosure of material risks and solicitation of the patient’s preferences are very important in the process of informed consent. The relationship between doctor and patient should be one of the trust and communication. An honest and ethically obtained consent can prevent litigations and medicolegal repercussions.

Bioethical issues related to the principle of utility in the residential consumption of drinking water in Colombia

Abstract This research seeks to investigate bioethical issues related to the principle of utility in the residential consumption of drinking water in Colombia. The analysis is carried out using the hermeneutic analysis method. The research highlights the influence of the tariff policies implemented between 1994 and 2021, which have depended on the management of the Government, the efficiency of water supply companies, and the freedom of decision-making. The results show, among others, that: the tariff policy has rationalized basic water consumption in vulnerable populations, but with a clear regressive trend; the principle of utility prioritizes financial sufficiency over considerations of efficiency and equity; the cost-benefit analysis adds a moral dimension to the principle of utility, being a basic instrument for increases in water coverage; the high IANC non-billed water index shows the economic inefficiency of the tariff policy, overshadowing the ethical and bioethical considerations evidenced. Bioethics of protection is recommended as an addendum to the Tariff Policy, aimed at universalizing water service for the benefit of the most vulnerable population.

The Politics of Theology: Deadly Christian Compromises in Bonhoeffer’s Germany

Generally, this essay employs the concept of ‘stance’ to try to understand the theological thoughts and activities of Bonhoeffer and the Christian community at large during the turbulent events which occurred in Nazi Germany. In particular, it attempts a brief exploratory sketch of how various socio-political contextual factors significantly shaped many of his central theological ideas and concepts. The essay suggests that Bonhoeffer’s doctrine of ethics cannot be adequately understood apart from the socio-political context of Hitler’s dictatorship and the actions of the Nazi National Socialist political regime within which it emerged and developed. His active role in the resistance movement to the point of losing his life and that of loved ones was Bonhoeffer’s way of putting his Christian beliefs into concrete practice. Horrified by the blind loyalty and obedience of the bulk of Christians to Nazi state authority, Bonhoeffer responded by formulating a theology to respond to what he viewed as transgressions against God, human life, and society itself. The essay concludes by asserting that all of Bonhoeffer’s discussions about ‘ethics’ regarding conscience, freedom, the Christian faith and church, responsibility, and even his central concept of ‘responsible action’ were formulated in direct response and challenge to Hitler’s political regime.

Taking Class Seriously

This article critically analyzes the human rights perspective upon what has emerged as one of the most significant socioeconomic and political challenges confronting many millions of people residing within high-income, liberal-democratic societies: rising poverty and socioeconomic inequality. This article argues that international and domestic human rights law and the social and political imaginaries of the wider human rights community largely fail to adequately diagnose and effectively respond to poverty and inequality within high-income, liberal-democratic societies. As a political and ethical doctrine founded upon a normative commitment to social justice, human rights should be taking the lead in efforts to condemn, understand, and develop responses to the poverty and inequality which blight the lives of many millions of people within many of the world’s most affluent and, allegedly, most “liberal” societies. Human rights law has historically not done so. We, as a community, have not done so. This article offers a specific explanation for this continuing failure, by focusing upon the absence of any concerted recognition of or engagement with social class as it contributes to and compounds our exposure to poverty and inequality. Human rights remain largely blind to the many ways in which social class is intricately connected to poverty and inequality. The human rights community within high-income, liberal-democratic societies characteristically fails to take class seriously. Building upon previous writing in this area, this article explains why class is rarely recognized or engaged with by the human rights community. This article also sets out the basis for how we might begin the task of overcoming this highly damaging class blindness, to set the stage for what the author asserts as an urgent need if human rights is to provide the kind of political and ethical leadership required to effectively engage with poverty and inequality in affluent societies: the degentrification of human rights.

An Analysis of Nyaya Darshana with Special Emphasis on Realism

Nyaya School of Philosophy is distinctly recognized as one of the Six Astika Schools of Hindu Philosophy. Unlike Other Schools, Nyaya is peculiarly known to have proposed five components of Syllogism derived from Inferential Reasoning, both Inductive and Deductive. This treatise aims at clarifying The Nyaya Syllogisms, and successfully arguing for its Logical Realism. Logical Realism, in simple terms, refers to logical facts that are Independent of Mind and Language i.e., they are true synthetic a priori no matter the proposition. This Paper shall advocate the logical structure of Nyaya Syllogism which is independent of both mind and language. Also, the Inferential Reasoning that has been instrumentalized by Gautama to propose such Syllogisms shall be discussed to supplement the paper’s Groundwork. This paper has treated Nyaya in regard to its Epistemology and Logic. The reference to Nyaya, as a metaphysical or Ethical Doctrine, including the ideas of Causation, Fallacies, Truth, and Moksha has, for the most part, been sidelined. The Arguments have been drawn from the Original Works of Gautama called “The Nyaya Sutras” as well as Secondary Works which have further illuminated the works of Gautama. Hence, this Paper shall act as an advancement and supplement to the Nyaya Syllogism. It shall also shed light on the Contributions of Nyaya Syllogism in Syllogistic Logic.

Moral philosophy as an object of Hegel’s debate with Kant in The Phenomenology of Spirit

The history of Hegel’s critical controversy with Kant’s moral philosophy starts with the Frankfurt period of his work, when Hegel first opposed what he believed to be Kant’s absolutisation of the concept of duty and his neglect of the social content of morality. Although Hegel more than once addressed Kant’s moral philosophy, it is only in “Phenomenology of Spirit” that he formulated a more systemic and radical criticism. The basis of his critical argumentation is an attempt to reveal the main contradiction in Kant’s ethics by showing that the fulfilment of unconditional moral requirements leads to the complete elimination of morality itself. By uncovering the internal contradictions in Kant’s unconditional duty, Hegel demonstrates a certain kind of pragmatism in the interpretation of moral duty and offers instead a religious faith in the transcendental power of “communal” consciousness, which will become a principle that supposedly removes all contradictions of a moral worldview. These debates between the two most prominent classics of German idealism on the issue of whether moral demands are universal in nature or are always socially determined, has not lost its significance even today. This is because they present two substantially different ethical doctrines: one affirms the idea of the autonomy of moral consciousness and its formal unconditional character, while the other assumes that a certain moral duty can be legitimate only under specific socio-historical conditions.

Origins of morality. Kant and modern cognitive science

The origins of morality, the role of emotions in moral behaviour and other related issues nowadays agitate philosophers as well as natural and cognitive scientists. They investigate the seemingly ‘moral’ and ‘reasonable’ behaviour of social animals, which raises the question of the nature of morality in a new perspective, and thus motivates an appeal to Kant’s moral philosophy. It is noteworthy that Kant did not connect morality exclusively with human nature. Linking moral principles with pure reason, he considered morality as an a priori condition of the moral behaviour of every rational being. In this article, I attempt to compare Kant’s moral rationalism to the ethical doctrine of enactivism. I would suggest that, despite obvious differences, these concepts are quite compatible as indicated by the empirical data of modern life sciences. The result of the combination of these conceptions can be a hybrid position based on the recognition of the necessary character of morality, due to the reasonable structure of the world. In the first section, I consider the Kantian rational interpretation of morality. The second section provides an outline of the enactivist approach. The third part focuses on the contribution that modern natural science can make to the analysis of moral behaviour. In conclusion, I recap major findings and reiterate my position.

The dynamics of bioethical discussion in religious and philosophical doctrines about the living

The article presents a study of the formation and development of bioethical discourse based on the analysis of leading philosophical concepts, doctrines, and religious beliefs about the value of life in various manifestations of its being. The authors note that the beginning of axiological reflection on the problem of the living can be found in the works of ancient philosophers and the early Christian discourse as attempts to sacralise life. Moreover, the authors attribute a significant role in the development of bioethical discourse to the ethical doctrine of Kant and his opponents, representatives of the phenomenological direction of philosophical anthropology. Finally, the article notes that in modern conditions, bioethical discourse is concentrated around the axiological paradigm in the doctrine of the living. The various viewpoints are proposed to be grouped into two main approaches: the ethics of sacredness (sanctity) of life and the ethics of quality of life. These approaches have significant scientific potential, which allows for the development of bioethical doctrine, employing forming moral norms and imperatives of human behaviour, as well as establishing restrictions on human influence on the means and forms of existence of the living.

The Doctrine of Double Effect and Medical Ethics: A New Formulation

The standard version of the doctrine of double effect, a significant doctrine in applied ethics particularly medical ethics, not only fails to capture some morally significant components of Aquinas’ view, but it does not resort to proper complementary features in order to accommodate the doctrine to our moral intuitions. We attempt to offer a new formulation of the doctrine incorporating the main components of Aquinas’ view and also to extend the view using some complementary features. We will examine the strength of the formulation applying it into some ethically controversial situations, mainly in medical ethics.

Utilitarianism: Greatst Impediment to Justice

This paper evaluates the validity of the foundational ethical conception of Justice and its contesting contradictory conception, Utilitarianism in framing the institutional structure of a nation. Thereby the paper asserts the importance of Justice and certain virtues to a nation’s rise and fall and observes greatest impediment of Justice in the idea of Utilitarianism. While Utilitarianism advances its own conception of Justice, based on critical-theoretical approach the article advances three-fold arguments in order to reprove Utilitarianism of its claim. Utilitarianism is not a viable form of Justice since the theory represents a form of egoism, is structurally inconsistent to sound ethical doctrine, and because it has dissolved the end and means dichotomy.

Reith, Russell, and the Robots: AI, Warfare, and Shaping the Debate

On December 8th, 2021, Professor Stuart Russell delivered the second of that year’s Reith Lectures, presented under the banner title ‘Living With Artificial Intelligence’. This specific talk dealt with ‘The Future Role of AI in Warfare’, and in this paper I propose a reading of Russell’s address which both summarises and critiques his argument and stance, to determine what, if anything, can be taken from his position as effectively a public philosopher and applied in the realm of modern warfare, where ethical questions are taken from the seminar room and enacted in battlespace. The Reith lectures occupy a unique place in public discourse; given each year by a leading figure in the field under discussion, they help to shape opinion and debate. In considering the role of AI, and in particular its deployment in combat, there is undoubtedly a need for multi- and transdisciplinary thought, but the choice of Russell as the lecturer is not unproblematic. He is undoubtedly an expert in the field of AI, but he has no direct experience of working with the military, and is clearly not a neutral witness. He has been a leading figure in the campaign to ban research into autonomous weapon systems, and was closely involved in the production of Slaughterbots, a short film which presents a nightmare vision of swarming drones as agents of political repression. There are deep and serious questions to be asked about the role of AI in warfare, but Russell’s position that we must stop all research in the field is arguably naïve. Our adversaries will surely not be as punctilious. At the heart of the debate lie complex issues concerning human agency and control (and ‘control’ lies at the etymological root of ‘cyber’); this paper will use Russell’s lecture as a starting point for the consideration of how we might develop an ethical doctrine for the use of AI, resting on the idea of human-machine teaming. It will, in short, argue for a cybernetic solution to the problems of cyber warfare.

Philosophical Understanding of Music and Poetry in Sufism

The role of music and words in Sufi practice is very high. It is through the musical component and the sounding word that the main attributes of the mystical direction in Islam are given, becoming a powerful sacred instrument in comprehending the truth. Sufism is a philosophical, aesthetic, religious, ethical doctrine and lifestyle. In the past, it had embraced all spheres of social life, influenced, and often determined the creative thinking of poets, musicians, architects, artisans, and other creators. Nowadays Sufism is an active practice of religious life in an unorthodox Islam. It is becoming a source of inspiration for contemporary composers and poets. Many ideas of Sufism were in conflict and opposition with the official line of the orthodox faith. Among these ideas was music, for which the Sufis use the term «sama» (literally «listening»). In Sufism, music as one of the ways to comprehend God, had special power. This study presents the theoretical aspect of the music and poetry influence on the aesthetic side of Sufism. Based on the research of Islamic scholars, and most importantly on the literary, philosophical works of the Sufis, previously not used with scientific intentions; Let us present a picture of the vision and understanding of the musical and aesthetic side of unorthodox Islam. It is also important to rediscover the relationship between the emergence and introduction of the musical aesthetics of Sufism into the modern musical ritual practice of an unorthodox Islam

«Татпарья-вритти» Падмапрабхи Маладхаридевы и джайнская этика

This publication presents the first translation into European language of the only Sanskrit commentary Tātparya-vrŠ tti of the almost unknown Digambara exegete Padmaprabha Maladhārideva (12th century) on the first chapter-adhikāra of the treatise Niyama-sāra (“Essence of Restraint”) by Kundakunda (3rd–4th centuries), who is one of the most authoritative Jain authors. The first chapter of the commentary introduces the problems of the text and gives a general idea of the “Three Jewels” of Jainism: right vision, right knowledge and right behavior, the latter of which is the main theme of the text. The translation is preceded by an Introduction to the ethical doctrine of Jainism, which is considered by the author of the article as one of the variants of the virtue ethics. Jain ontology, being a descriptive part of the Jain Doctrine, is complemented by a prescriptive one, which includes an extensive system of vows (both “great” and “small”, basic and additional) and restrictions for all members of the community, which is built on the basis of the main prohibition of violence against all kinds of living beings. The observance of vows in Jain ethics is logically integrated into the Path of Liberation of the soul-ātman from the wheel of rebirth and is marked by various steps of the ladder of spiritual self-improvement. In the first chapter of the commentary Padmaprabha Maladhārideva proficiently shows the connection between ontology and ethics, skillfully weaving verses of his own composition into his exegesis and demonstrating deep knowledge not only of the Jain philosophical tradition, but also fluency in various verse meters according to the hermeneutical tasks facing him.

Jane Eyre and Forgiveness

This paper examines the ways in which Jane forgives others’ wrongdoings against her. The statement that “I am passionate but not vindictive” exemplifies the nature of Jane’s forgiveness in that she is willing to defy the cruelty and injustice vitiating the human rights and ethical values, and in that she forgives the sinners without any intention of vengeance. Vladimir Jankélévitch’s concept of forgiveness along with Jacques Derrida’s paradoxical statement that forgiveness forgives only the unforgivable opens the possibility of unconditional forgiveness granted to the sinner despite the fact that the crime the sinner committed in the past must be punished in reality. Jane’s ongoing efforts to forgive Mrs. Reed, Mr. Rochester, and St. John Rivers corroborate her doctrine of ethics that she strongly resists injustice, but she graciously pardons them without any vindictive feelings.

From Habermas to Derrida: A Weak Form of Secular Universalism

In this article, I argue that a universalistic thrust of secularism should not be located in a Habermasian deontological liberal principle of the priority of universal morality over particularistic ethical doctrines. I show that Habermas cannot plausibly demonstrate that this principle can be invariably applied across different cases. However, in order not to succumb to parochialism, the failure of the deontological model should not prompt us to give up on the search for a universalistic drive behind secularism. To this end, I advocate a Derridean critique of religion and secularism as an alternative solution. By deconstructing the Kantian dichotomy of faith vs. knowledge, Jacques Derrida shows that secularism is, paradoxically, both a concrete socio-political regime and a possibility for a radical change.