Ethic Endorsement Research Articles

Busy Ethic: A Validation of a Popular Concept.

The busy ethic for retirement, as proposed by Ekerdt (1986), is a prescriptive norm that esteems an occupied, active lifestyle. This research is a first attempt to measure the busy ethic in a standardized way and apply it to a population-based sample. Objectives are: to examine whether a busy ethic is affirmed by retirees; to test busy ethic endorsement by different segments of the retired population; and to examine whether endorsement is associated with selected activities. We developed a scale measuring the busy ethic for a survey among 1,143 Dutch retirees. We tested two sets of hypotheses about social factors that might explain subscription to a busy norm: a hypothesis about modernization (i.e., individual autonomy from social control) that would reduce busy ethic endorsement and a hypothesis about differential exposure to expectations. Greater consent to the busy ethic was associated with circumstances that enable active lifestyles (perceived income adequacy, self-reported health), that raise one's social value (education), and that entail more social connectedness (religious service attendance). Busy ethic agreement was positively associated with engagement in paid work, productive social activities, and group recreation. We found substantial endorsement of the importance of activity for oneself and others. The idealization of a busy retirement as a good retirement may be a seeming way for retirees to defer old age. At the same time, a prescriptive norm of activation may put strain on older adults who are less capable of conforming.

Finding Meaning in the Struggle of Work

Abstract. It is suggested that work importance research has suffered from construct proliferation, and that the literature would benefit from returning to Dubin’s (1956) original notion of work importance as a general construct – representing the degree to which work plays a central role in one’s life space. Measures of three work importance constructs (i.e., work involvement, job involvement, work ethic endorsement) were administered to (n = 758) working adults from the USA to examine dimensionality using bifactor analysis. Results showed the bifactor model fit the data better than a one-factor or three-factor model. The bifactor model suggests that both general and domain-specific factors appear to exist, but that the general work importance factor predicts most work outcomes to a substantial degree.

Generational Differences in Work Ethic: Fact or Fiction?

Even though stereotypes suggest that older generational cohorts (e.g., Baby Boomers) endorse higher levels of work ethic than younger generations (e.g., Millennials), both the academic literature and popular press have found mixed evidence as to whether or not generational differences actually exist. To examine whether generational differences exist in work ethic, a dataset was compiled (k = 105) of all published studies that provided an average sample age and average work ethic score, with each sample becoming an observation, and being assigned a generational cohort based upon the average age of the sample. Three hierarchical multiple regressions found no effect of generational cohort on work ethic endorsement. In two of the three phases, results found a main effect of sample type, such that industry samples had higher work ethic endorsement than student samples. Implications for applied practitioners and future research streams for generational and work ethic research are discussed.

Protestant ethic endorsement, personality, and general intelligence

To learn if Protestant ethic endorsement predicted intelligence controlling for the big five personality factors, 364 college students from England and the United States completed a 65-item multifaceted work ethic endorsement measure, the 50-item Wonderlic Personnel Test, and a 60-item measure of the big five personality factors. A hierarchical multiple regression revealed that, after controlling for respondent's sex and the big five, work ethic facets accounted for 5.6% of the variability in Wonderlic scores. However, the direction of the relationship between PWE facets and Wonderlic scores depended on the PWE facet in question. Furthermore, the facets accounted for more variability than did a composite work ethic score. The discussion focuses on the multidimensional nature of PWE endorsement and future research with this construct.

Protestant Work Ethic Endorsement and Social Justice Values in Developing and Developed Societies

Taking Weber's Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism thesis as the point of departure, this paper compares work ethic endorsement patterns and social justice correlates in a developing society, Jamaica, and a developed society, New Zealand. A condensed version of Mirels and Garrett's Protestant work ethic scale and related demographic and social values-related measures were administered at Jamaican and New Zealand universities. High and low Protestant ethic (PE) clusters were isolated, within each culture, among comparable samples of undergraduate social science students, and multiple analysis of variance applied to test effects of culture, Protestant religious affiliation and related “social justice values” variables (welfare state support, redistribution, intergenerational equity, free enterprise, social distance from the disadvantaged, social Darwinism). Results suggest there are significant cultural differences between high and low PE scorers on key justice-related societal values often seen as being associated with the Protestant work ethic. Possible reasons for the differences are advanced in light of Jamaican and New Zealand social and political conditions.

Money ethic endorsement, self‐reported income, and life satisfaction

This research examines the money ethic scale (budget, evil, equity, success, and motivator), self‐reported income, demographic variables, and life satisfaction among 207 professors in the USA and 102 professors in Spain. Results suggested that the female/male income ratio was 70.95 percent for American professors and 63.82 percent for Spanish professors. American faculty reported higher scores on factors budget, equity, and success, and lower scores on factor evil than their Spanish counterparts. Sex (male), factors budget, education, and work experience were predictors of American professors’ income, while work experience, sex (male), education, and factor motivator were predictors of Spanish professors’ income. For the American sample, marital status (married), factors budget, sex (male), a low level of education, and a low level of factor success were predictors of life satisfaction, whereas for the Spanish sample, marital status (married), young age, and factor budget were predictors of life satisfaction. Income was not related to life satisfaction in both samples.

A cross cultural comparison of pay differentials as a function of rater's sex and Money Ethic endorsement: the Matthew Effect revisited

Abstract This research extends Tang's [Tang, T. L. P. (1996). Pay differentials as a function of rater's sex, money ethic and job incumbent's sex: a test of the Matthew Effect. Journal of Economic Psychology , 17, 127–144] original study of the Matthew Effect in internal equity to an international setting and examines employees in three countries: Taiwan, the USA and the UK. Results showed that Chinese workers allocated more money to different positions than did their American and British counterparts. Chinese also created a larger pay differential for the top position and smaller pay differentials for the bottom positions than their counterparts. Further, males tended to have a significantly higher top/bottom pay differential (2.44) than females (2.39). For the whole sample, there was a significant difference in pay differentials between male participants with high and low Money Ethic endorsement, supporting the Matthew Effect. This study reveals both culture-specific ( emic ) differences in pay differentials and culture-free ( etic ) findings from all three countries.

Does attitude toward money moderate the relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and voluntary turnover?

The present study expanded Judge's (1993) study and tested the hypotheses that people's Money Ethic endorsement (Tang, 1992, 1995) would moderate the intrinsic job satisfaction-withdrawal cognitions relationship and the intrinsic job satisfaction-voluntary turnover relationship in a sample of mental health and mental retardation professionals. Results suggested that Money Ethic endorsement was a moderator for both relationships. For employees with high Money Ethic endorsement, their voluntary turnover was high regardless of their intrinsic job satisfaction. Employees with low Money Ethic endorsement and low intrinsic job satisfaction had the lowest voluntary turnover. Thus, in this sample, just a pull (high Money Ethic) is needed to experience turnover. Money Ethic endorsement predicted actual turnover behavior, but withdrawal cognitions did not. Money Ethic endorsement was not a mediator of the intrinsic job satisfaction and turnover relationship. Results are discussed in terms of the small, but growing literature on the psychology of money (Furnham & Argyle, 1998). Future research needs to re-focus on employees' actual turnover behavior, rather than the substitutes or proxies of turnover behavior, such as withdrawal cognitions.

Relationships among five forms of commitment: an empirical assessment

This paper examined whether Morrow's (1993) model of five universal forms of work commitment (affective organizational commitment, continuance organizational commitment, career commitment, job involvement and work ethic endorsement) has empirical support. The paper explored the discriminant validity among the five scales of these commitment forms. It also tested Morrow's model regarding the interrelationships among them in comparison with an alternative conceptualization proposed by Randall and Cote (1991). Two hundred and thirty-eight nursing staff from two hospitals in western Canada were surveyed. Results of confirmatory factor analysis (LISREL VIII) and correlation analysis showed an acceptable discriminant validity among the five commitment foci. The results of path analysis (LISREL VIII) showed a poor fit with the data of Morrow's model and a better fit with the alternative model of Randall and Cote. Revised models based on the modification indices from both models were tested, and supported the Randall and Cote approach. The paper concludes with implications regarding the continuing assessment of Morrow's conceptualization to establish an acceptable definition and measurement of universal forms of work commitment. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Pay differentials as a function of rater's sex, money ethic, and job incumbent's sex: A test of the Matthew Effect

A hypothetical organization chart was adopted to examine the relative worth of five positions and pay differentials as a function of rater's sex, Money Ethic endorsement, and job incumbent's sex. Results show that job incumbent's sex has no impact on pay allocations in the present study. Significant two-way interaction effects between subject's sex and Money Ethic endorsement were found. Further analyses showed that men with high Money Ethic endorsement allocated significantly more money to the highest position and significantly less money to the lowest positions than did those with low Money Ethic endorsement. However, women's allocations of money were not affected by their endorsement of the Money Ethic. Thus, men's allocation of position worth supports the Matthew Effect.

The Protestant ethic and self-characterization

The present study investigated the relationship between endorsement of the Protestant Ethic and self-characterizations reflected in personality test scores and self-ratings. As anticipated, the stronger the endorsement of Protestant Ethic ideology, the greater the tendency to describe oneself as having dispositions that are highly valued by that ideology. Endorsement was positively related to scores on Jackson's Personality Research Form (PRF) [ Personality Research Form Manual (2nd edn), 1974] for Achievement, Endurance, and Order, and negatively related to scores for Impulsivity and Autonomy. Strength of Protestant Ethic endorsement was also positively related to the tendency to rate oneself as high in willpower and self-discipline, and as low in anxiety in comparison with ‘other college students’. A negative correlation between endorsement and scores on the Infrequency scale of the PRF suggests that persons who avow the Protestant Ethic may indeed be predisposed to act in accordance with its prescriptions.

Effects of type A personality and leisure ethic on Chinese college students' leisure activities and academic performance.

Abstract The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of Type A personality and leisure ethic on students' leisure activities and academic performance. Chinese college students in the Republic of China were classified as either Type A or Type B, and as either high leisure ethic or low leisure ethic, based on the median-split in their scores on Type A and leisure ethic measures. The results of 2 × 2 analyses of variance suggested that high leisure ethic subjects had significantly higher reported frequencies of going to movies and live concerts than had low leisure ethic subjects. Type As had a significantly higher rate of going to live concerts than had Type Bs. Type As with a high leisure ethic endorsement attended more live concerts than the average of the other three groups. Type As with a low leisure ethic had a significantly better total academic performance than the average of the other three groups. For Type Bs, however, the results failed to reach significance. Individuals' Type A personality scores were negatively correlated with the number of times students went to the movies. These results replicate the results of Tang and Baumeister's (1984) laboratory study using college students in the United States.

Professionalism as a form of work commitment

A modified version of R. H. Hall's (1968, American Sociological Review 33, 92–104) multidimensional measure of professionalism was used to evaluate the concept of professionalism as a form of work commitment. Based on a sample of 325 accountants in public practice, professionalism was examined vis-a-vis three forms of work commitment (i.e., job involvement, organizational commitment, and work ethic endorsement) and four professional behaviors. Results indicate that the measure requires some refinement but is nonredundant with other forms of work commitment. The future role of professionalism is discussed.

Protestant Work Ethic Endorsement among Anglo Americans, Chicanos, and Mexicans: A Comparison of Factor Structures

The cross-cultural appropriateness of the Mirels and Garrett (1971) Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) scale was assessed by comparing the factor structures of Anglo American, Chicano, and Mexican samples. The model derived from the Anglo American sample was not statistically acceptable in its entirely for either the Chicano or the Mexican samples. However, examination of specific discrepancies showed considerable similarity across the samples on several factors, namely honor, success, and effort. The factor structure of the Mexican sample was more similar to the Anglo American sample than that of the Chicano sample. Contrary to predictions based on acculturation theory, comparisons using the full scale indicated PWE endorsement in the following order: Mexicans, Chicanos, and Anglo Americans. The findings are discussed in terms of cultural differences in orientation towards work and leisure.

Work commitment and job satisfaction over three career stages

Four measures of work commitment (job involvement, organizational commitment, work ethic endorsement, and intention to remain), five job satisfaction facets, and six personal characteristics were examined under three career stage operationalizations: age, organizational tenure, and positional tenure. Results from a sample of 2200 public agency employees indicated that the selection of a career stage operationalization influences findings related to organizational commitment and intention to remain while job involvement, work ethic endorsement, job satisfaction, and personal characteristics are relatively unaffected by the operationalization chosen. Age was observed to explain more variation in the variables studied, when compared to the tenure measures. However, the overall levels of explained variation are low. Additional research designed to validate the concept of career stage is advocated.

Protestant work ethic, work involvement and the psychological impact of unemployment

AbstractThis study is an attempt to replicate and extend recent findings concerning the moderating effect of employment commitment on the psychological impact of unemployment. It was carried out in a highly educated population and employed Protestant work ethic endorsement (PWE) and work involvement (WINV) as indicators of commitment to work. Evidence was collected by questionnaires from 432 individuals who had been unemployed and again, six months later, from most of the same individuals. Cross‐sectional and longitudinal analysis shows that individuals with high WINV were likely to suffer more from unemployment and to gain more from finding employment than low work‐involved individuals. PWE, on the other hand, did not moderate the relationship between employment status and psychological state.

Factors in reward distribution: Allocator motive, gender, and Protestant ethic endorsement.

Factors in reward distribution: Allocator motive, gender, and Protestant ethic endorsement.

Factors in reward distribution: Allocator motive, gender, and Protestant ethic endorsement.

Factors in reward distribution: Allocator motive, gender, and Protestant ethic endorsement.

Protestant ethic endorsement and the fairness of equity inputs

Two studies are reported which show how endorsement of the Protestant ethic is related to the perceived fairness of using various equity inputs. In Experiment 1, male undergraduates scoring high and low on the Protestant Ethic (PE) Scale made salary decisions for hypothetical workers who differed with respect to their performance quantity and duration. High PEs paid workers in proportion to their total productivity by taking into account both quantity and duration. However, low PEs ignored differences in quantity by paying workers the same amount, but did pay in proportion to duration. In the follow-up study, high PEs reported that it is fairer to base reward on performance when differences are attributable to internal causes than external causes, while the reverse was found for low PEs.

Protestant ethic endorsement and attitudes toward commuting to work among mass transit riders.

Protestant ethic endorsement and attitudes toward commuting to work among mass transit riders.