Estonian-Russian Border Research Articles

Ongoing recovery of a brown bear population from a century-old severe bottleneck: insights from population genetic and spatially explicit analyses

By the beginning of the twentieth century, many brown bear populations in Europe were on the brink of extinction due to relentless hunting pressure and habitat loss. The situation was critical also in Estonia, where in the 1920s the population went through a severe demographic bottleneck. Thanks to the protective measures implemented in the 1930s, the population started to recover. However, the process has been slow, especially in the western and southern areas of the country. To study the effects of the demographic bottleneck, we analysed 216 brown bear samples from throughout their main range in Estonia. In combination with widely used methods of population genetics, a recently developed spatially explicit analysis (distribution of residual dissimilarity, DResD) was also applied. Three genetic clusters were revealed, of which two were most likely founded by the survivors of the bottleneck. The DResD analysis revealed several contact zones near the Estonian-Russian border, suggesting that the third cluster was influenced by gene flow from the neighbouring population in Russia. The DResD analysis revealed also a male biased movement corridor along the forested south-north axis in the central part of Estonia. In comparison to other European populations, the genetic diversity of the Estonian population is relatively low and is comparable with other populations that have gone through a severe bottleneck. This work has important implications for brown bear conservation and highlights once again the dangers of excessive hunting.

Maintaining borders: From border guards to diplomats

Abstract The article aims at integrating the cultural psychology perspective of into the multidisciplinary field of border studies. It analyses the border phenomenon as a co-genetic system. The authors investigate the psychological side of people who relate to the border out of different motives. Then, it expands some of the theoretical concepts current in border studies by introducing psychological dimensions such as intentionality and directionality. Finally, the framework is applied to two case-studies representing the northern and southern European Union frontiers: the case of Estonian officer Eston Kohver in the Setumaa region on the Estonian–Russian border; and the experiences of border guards in the re-bordering process on the Spanish– Moroccan border. It offers an innovative conceptual resource based on a triadic co-genetic epistemological approach, which allows us to overcome the binary oppositions still very present in the contemporary debates in borders studies.

Maintaining borders: From border guards to diplomats

Abstract The article aims at integrating the cultural psychology perspective of into the multidisciplinary field of border studies. It analyses the border phenomenon as a co-genetic system. The authors investigate the psychological side of people who relate to the border out of different motives. Then, it expands some of the theoretical concepts current in border studies by introducing psychological dimensions such as intentionality and directionality. Finally, the framework is applied to two case-studies representing the northern and southern European Union frontiers: the case of Estonian officer Eston Kohver in the Setumaa region on the Estonian–Russian border; and the experiences of border guards in the re-bordering process on the Spanish–Moroccan border. It offers an innovative conceptual resource based on a triadic co-genetic epistemological approach, which allows us to overcome the binary oppositions still very present in the contemporary debates in borders studies.

Five Gazes on the Border: a Collective Auto-Ethnographic Writing

The article presents a collective and interdisciplinary academic writing about an itinerant field work in three different sites/areas with the distinct identities of the Estonian territory, in particular the Estonian-Russian border zones. The authors had traveled for 1 week in three different Estonian border areas to observe the everyday life of people. The different perspectives of cultural psychology and human geography illuminate the multifaceted nature of borderscapes and the special processes of meaning-making that take place on the border.

Finlandisation or media logic? The Estonian–Russian border incident of 2014 in Finnish, Estonian and British press

This article examines the construction of the Estonian–Russian border incident of 2014, where an Estonian security officer ended captured by Russian authorities, in Finnish, Estonian and British press. It asks (a) How did the press construct the event and the actors in the reporting of the Kohver case in Finnish, Estonian and British press? What happened? Who did what? Who was responsible? What is the outcome of these constructions? Are there differences in national reporting? (b) Can ‘Finlandisation’ explain the discursive choices in the press constructions? By Finlandisation we refer to a hypothesis about the effects that the proximity of a major power in the context of international tension has on media discourse and culture more broadly. We argue that although the discourse of the Kohver case in Finnish, Estonian and British press could be subsumed under the term ‘Finlandisation’ in the case of the first two countries, a more fruitful approach would be to consider the discursive differences in the framework of the ‘domestication’ of news. This implies that explaining the tone of the news discourse is as much a matter of media logic as it is of underlying and/or implicit ideology.

Civil Society Cooperation in the Face of Territorial Adversity: The Estonian–Russian Case

The main objective of this paper is two‐fold. In its first part, it gives a description of the main civil society actors of local and regional cross‐border cooperation in the Estonian–Russian border area, which encompasses the Russian administrative regions of Pskov and Leningrad and the eastern Estonian counties of Ida‐Virumaa, Jõgevamaa, Tartumaa and Põlvamaa. It analyses their motivations and the main factors that affect the dynamics of their cooperation. The second part of the paper addresses the perceptions of representatives of civil society organizations with regard to the role of the EU in promoting cross‐border cooperation on the EU external border, its support for civil society organization (CSO) cooperation activities and its way of engaging CSOs in the implementation of its policies for cross‐border cooperation.

Temporal and spatial variation in the zooplankton : phytoplankton biomass ratio in a large shallow lake

INTRODUCTION Research of large lakes is highly complex as such lakes expand over a large area and are affected by an enormous number of different climatic and environmental factors (Blenckner, 2008). Various specific indicators and indexes are needed to facilitate the understanding of the state (and its changes) of large lakes. The zooplankton : phytoplankton biomass ratio ([MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]) largely reflects the type (effectiveness) of the food web in a water body and hence the nature of the ecosystem. Indirectly, it characterizes dominating groups in phyto- and zooplankton, feeding relationships between them and fish, as well as the pressure of fish on zooplankton. The [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] ratio can be used as a marker criterion for the evaluation of the trophy of a water body and its ecosystem and, particularly, for permanent monitoring of a water body. This ratio decreases with the rise of the trophic state (Gulati, 1983; Andronikova, 1996; Jeppesen et al., 1999, 2000, 2005; Haberman & Laugaste, 2003). It is widely recognized that phytoplankton is influenced most by nutrients (bottom up) while zooplankton is influenced both by consumers (top down) and algae (bottom up). This causes their different seasonal dynamics and complicated relevant ratios. Thus, the values of the [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] ratio are fluctuating within and across years. This variability has not been thoroughly analysed. Some data concerning this ratio for L. Peipsi have been published on the basis of plankton sampled up to the end of the last century (Haberman, 1996; Haberman & Laugaste, 2003; Noges & Noges, 2006). As the situation in the lake has changed markedly during this decade, a new analysis of the ratio has been initiated. About two decades ago, the ecosystem of the lake was in a quite good balance, and an effective algal food web prevailed in the open water (Noges et al., 1993). Since the late 1990s and during the 2000s, the ecosystem of the lake lost its stability. The proportion of cyanobacteria in the biomass of summer phytoplankton increased consistently: from 20% to 70% in L. Peipsi sensu stricto (s.s.), and from 30% to 90% in the southern lake parts (Laugaste et al., 2007). An appreciable concentration of microcystins was detected in the lake water in the summer months of the 2000s (Tanner et al., 2005), and the biomass of the genus Microcystis exceeded 20 g [m.sup.-3] in the southern lake parts in some years. At the same time, a continuous decline in zooplankton (Haberman et al., 2008) and changes in fish population (Kangur et al., 2008) were observed. The stock of planktivorous smelt (Osmerus eperlanus eperlanus m. spirinchus Pallas) and vendace (Coregonus albula (L.)) decreased drastically, and the abundance of piscivorous pikeperch (Stizostedion lucioperca (L.)) increased but, owing to over-fishing, the amount of pikeperch is modest (Kangur et al., 2008). Noges et al. (2005) explained the destabilization of the ecosystem with a decrease in the N : P ratio caused by increased phosphorus loading and reduced nitrogen loading in recent decades. The aim of this study was to follow the variations of the [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] ratio in different months, in different parts of the lake, and in different years; to establish boundaries of this variability, and to analyse how its changes reflect the state of the lake. We argue that the [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] ratio (particularly the mean for a growing season) can be used as a marker characteristic for estimating the trophy of a water body. STUDY SITE Lake Peipsi sensu lato (s.l.) is a large (area 3555 [km.sup.2], the fourth largest lake in Europe) and shallow (mean depth 7.1 m), mainly unstratified lowland water body. Located on the Estonian-Russian border, L. Peipsi is the largest trans boundary lake in Europe. …

Assessment of water quality in a large lowland river (Narva, Estonia/Russia) using a new Hungarian potamoplanktic method

Phytoplankton is one of the four biological elements used for the assessment of the water quality of surface water bodies. In rivers phytoplankton-based assessment of water quality has not been conducted in Estonia up to now. The aim of the present study was to test a new Hungarian potamoplanktic method for the assessment of the water quality of the Narva River, a large river on the Estonian-Russian border. For testing the method, algal species in the phytoplankton of the Narva River were classified into functional groups. Then the Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR) was calculated and its value was compared with the corresponding values for different water quality classes given in the literature. The mean value of the EQR for the Narva River revealed seasonal variation: in most cases it indicated 'good' or 'excellent' quality classes in spring and summer and 'very bad' quality class in autumn. The median value for the vegetation period of 2001-2008 indicated 'moderate' quality class. Variation in the functional groups of phytoplankton and in the EQR values reflected the seasonal dynamics of phytoplankton and the impact of Lake Peipsi. Comparison of the results of the assessments made by using the phytoplankton EQR and benthic diatom indices revealed agreement between the two metrics in the summer period: both were sensitive to the water quality and indicated at least 'good' quality class. The new Hungarian method appears to be suitable for the assessment of water quality in this Estonian large river. However, the numerical boundaries of the EQR for different water quality classes should be specified in the future on the basis of a larger Estonian phytoplankton database.

KIRIKUMÄGI AT SIKSÄLÄ: EVIDENCE OF A NEW GRAVE FORM IN SOUTH-EASTERN ESTONIA?; pp. 40–55

Finding place and context The archaeological complex of Siksala (Laul & Valk 2007) is located in the south-easternmost corner of Estonia, 2-3 km south of Misso village, ca. 7 km west of the present-day Estonian-Russian border and 3-4 km north of the Estonian-Latvian border. The complex consists of several monuments, including two cemeteries called Kalmetemagi (Graves' Hill) and Kirikumagi (Church Hill) which are located at the ends of the same oblong ridge. The cemetery on Kalmetemagi, mainly from the 11th-15th centuries, was investigated in the extent of ca. 80% in 1980-1993, whereby 242 inhumation graves with 253 burials, and 27 cremation burials were studied (Heapost 2007, table 1; Laul & Valk 2007, 29-80). In the further analysis of the scattered material from cremation graves, regarded formerly as stray finds, 11 additional cremations have been distinguished. The first excavations on Kirikumagi, a hill with the height of ca. 6 m between Lake Hino and Lake Mustjarv (Fig. 1) took place in 2003 (Valk 2004), in order to verify or disprove the former presence of the chapel, reflected in oral tradition, and of the suggested medieval cemetery. In the course of these works a 100 m long and 40 cm wide trench was dug along the hilltop (Fig. 2). The trench was divided into 1-metre long units, the numeration of which started from the west. The investigations were continued in 2004 (Valk 2005) with the aim to study and date the discovered chapel site and cemetery. During these excavations a ca. 35 m2 area, cut by the trial trenches, was opened in the southern part of the hill. In both years, especially in 2003, also some fragments of cremated bones were found from three areas, designated as A, B and C--two in the central and one in the southwestern part of the hill (Fig. 2). Between these areas, likewise in the north-eastern part of Kirikumagi, almost no cremation remains were discovered. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] In 2007 additional excavations were made in area A, in order to study the whole bone assemblage which was cut by the trench in 2003 and which was first interpreted as a pit-grave cremation (Valk 2004, 125). For that purpose, the formerly studied 2 m long part of the trench with cremated bones was extended in both directions for 0.5 m (to get more space for digging, also the filled trench was emptied again). Thus, in all, 2.8 [m.sup.2] was studied at the spot. The earth was dug by 10 cm thick layers. In 2003, the area where bones were found in the trench was regarded as one stratigraphic unit which was dug by horizontal layers. In 2007, the bones were collected by squares of 0.25 [m.sup.2] (the system was based on the general squares' system used in 2003) and by 10 cm layers. To find all the bone fragments, the ground was sieved. In total 69 different bone assemblages, based mainly on 1 m long parts of the trench or 1 m2 squares of the excavation plot of 2004, all of 10 cm thickness, were collected for analysis from Kirikumagi. In reality there existed, however, no distinct borders between the separately analysed assemblages: borders are only conventional, conditioned by the methodology of picking up bones. Distribution of cremated bones The first area of cremated bones (Fig. 2, A) where altogether 1184.9 g bone fragments were found (862.9 g in 2003 and 322 g in 2007) formed a 1.7 m long section of the trench. Some dispersed bone fragments which probably belonged together with them were gained also from the neighbouring square in the northeast (C/50; 5.4 g), and from squares located 0.5-1.5 m (G/ 47; 1.5 g) and 3.5-4.5 m (G/44; 0.9 g) to the south-west from the edge of the main concentration area (Fig. 2, A: 3). The second concentration area (Fig. 2, B) was ca. 5-6 m south-east of area A, in the excavation plot added to the main trench in 2003 (squares H/51 and H/52). Here 70.9 g of bones were found. The finds were from the area with the diameter of 1. …

Which Continuity? The Tartu Peace Treaty of 2 February 1920, the Estonian-Russian Border Treaties of 2005 and the Legal Debate about Estonia's Status in International Law

On 18 May 2005, the foreign ministers of the Republic of Estonia and the Russian Federation signed in Moscow the treaties establishing the mutual State borders at land and at sea. Except slight modifications to the current control line, the treaties essentially establish the current Estonian-Russian control line as the State border. The substance of the treaties had been negotiated during the mid-1990s but their signing had been postponed by the Russian Federation. Russia claimed that it would not sign the border treaties until other contested political issues between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Estonia would be solved in a satisfactory manner. Political analysts have suggested that Moscow's willingness to sign the treaties was enhanced by the accession of the Republic of Estonia to the EU on 1 May 2004. On the one hand, the absence of the border treaties did not become an obstacle for the Estonian acccession to the EU since Esto-

Ethnic Identity of the Setus and the Estonian–Russian Border Dispute

The Setus are an ethnic group, small in numbers, in the southeastern part of the Republic of Estonia and the Russian territories bordering on Estonia (Petseri raion of the Pskov oblast). The Setus can be seen as ethnographic raw material that both Estonian and Russian nationalists have attempted to claim. Generally, the Setus has been viewed as an ethnographic subgroup of Estonians and their language as part of the South Estonian dialect. Unlike the Estonians, who are predominantly Lutheran by tradition, the Setus are Orthodox. The specific characteristics of the Setus have emerged as a result of the combined influence of religious and linguistic peculiarities and a historic fate that is different from the Estonian. Because of the fact that they were considered Estonians when the censuses took place, the exact number of the Setus is unknown; however, I estimate the number of the Setus living in Setumaa and in Estonian towns to be about 5,000–6,000.