Estimates Of Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Contribution of urban trees to carbon sequestration and reduction of air pollutants in Lima, Peru

Urban green areas, such as parks, squares, and tree-lined streets, are part of nature-based solutions (NBS) that provide ecosystem services to address these urban issues. However, there is limited knowledge about the contribution of tree species and overall ecosystem services provided by urban trees under public management, especially in Latin America. This study aimed to provide information on the contribution of urban trees in reducing highly incident pollutants, such as CO2, particulate matter (PM 2. 5 and 10), and greenhouse effect gas compounds (GEG) in the city of Lima (Peru), using the I-tree package software tool for estimating ecosystem services. The results demonstrate that urban trees under public management in Lima significantly contribute to pollutant reduction and the sequestration and storage of CO2 in the city, being that storage is nearly 50% of the levels observed in native temperate forests in Latin America and higher than the value measured in some xerophytic native forests in the same region. Other evaluated pollutantś levels are significantly reduced. Differences among tree species were observed, showing amatillo (Ficus pertusa L. f.) and red eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.) as higher contributions to pollutant reduction, with Erythrina falcata Benth. as a native species having significant carbon storage (1,27 t/individual).This information is highly relevant for professionals and public institutions involved in urban planning and management, particularly urban tree management. It shows that tree species selection influences the mitigation of pollutant levels in cities while increasing other ecosystem services, thereby contributing to improving citizens' health.

Accounting for uncertainty in marine ecosystem service predictions for spatial prioritisation

AbstractAimSpatial assessments of Ecosystem Services (ES) are increasingly used in environmental management, but rarely provide information on the prediction accuracy. Uncertainty estimates are essential to provide confidence in the quality and credibility of ES assessments for informed decision making. In marine environments, the need for uncertainty assessments for ES is unparalleled as they are data scarce, poorly (spatially) defined, with complex interconnectivity of seascapes. This study illustrates the uncertainty associated with a principle‐based method for ES modelling by accounting for model variability, data coverage and uncertainty in thresholds and parameters.LocationTauranga, New Zealand.MethodsA sensitivity analysis was applied on ES models for marine bivalves (Austrovenus stutchburyi and Paphies australis) and their contribution to Food provision, Water quality regulation, Nitrogen removal and Sediment stabilisation. ES estimates from the sensitivity analysis were compared against baseline ES predictions. Spatial uncertainty patterns were analysed for individual ES through bi‐plots and multiple ES through spatial prioritisation using Zonation.ResultsOur study showed spatially explicit differences in uncertainty patterns for ES and between species. Food provision had highest maximum uncertainty (>5 points) but also the largest area of high ES and high certainty conditions. Zonation analysis conducted on baseline and conservative ES values showed overall robust outcomes of top 30% area, but important nuances through shifts in top 5% and 10% areas that allowed for a consistently better representation of ES when accounting for uncertainty.Main ConclusionsThe spatial prioritisation in combination with the ES uncertainty biplots provide tools for spatial planning of individual and multiple ES to focus on area of highest value with highest certainty and can thereby help reduce risk and aid decision‐making at acceptable confidence levels. This type of information is urgently needed in marine ES assessments and their management, but likewise extends to other environments to improve transparency.

Changes in the provision of ecosystem services based on sidewalk tree-composition scenarios

Cities have been experiencing environmental and social issues due to urban expansion processes, be them planned or not. However, several environmental solutions have been proposed and sidewalk tree planting stands out among them. The aim of the current research is to assess the process to estimate ecosystem services under different sidewalk tree composition scenarios in Irati and Curitiba cities, Paraná State. In order to do so, 10 street segments from neighborhoods sampled in city-wide inventories were selected. Information about sidewalk length, curb ramps’ width, and number of utility poles was collected for each street segment. The number of trees to be fit in each segment and sampled neighborhood was determined based on safety recommendations for these urban structures. Tree dimensions (Diameter at Breast Height - DBH, total height and crown diameter) were projected for the 55th year post-planting, based on using minimum dimensions of seedlings from small, medium and large-sized species. It was done to estimate ecosystem services in i-Tree Eco software. Significant differences among floristic composition scenarios (p<0.05) were observed for all ecosystem services in both cities. Compositions featuring large-sized species have show higher ability to provide ecosystem services, as well as higher monetary valuation, despite fitting a smaller number of trees in the assessed street segments. The herein formulated scenarios have shown the potential to increase the number of planted trees and to select compositions capable of maximizing ecosystem services’ provision and trees’ monetary value.

The impacts of land use/cover changes on values of ecosystem service in Tul watershed, Northwest Ethiopia

There has been a rise in interest in the relationship between ecosystem service values and land cover change resulting from sustainable land management. Changes in land use/cover caused by soil and water conservation practices combined with plantation practices can have an impact on the values systems of ecosystem service. The study aims to address the issue of how changes in land use/cover influence ecosystem values in Ethiopia’s Tul watershed. To estimate ecosystem service values in the study watershed, the benefits transfer method of the modified value coefficient was used. The total ESV decreased by US$4.2 million between 1990 and 2010 while increasing by US$4.3 million between 2010 and 2021. The expansion of plantation practices in the watershed contributes to the improvement of the values of ecosystem service. The major ecosystem functions that influence changes in the ecosystem service values are climate regulation, erosion control, waste treatment, and the nutrient cycle. It is concluded that there needs to be scaled up the controlled management of natural forests and shrublands in steep slope areas, and sustainable plantation practices enhance the values of ecosystem service.

Study on the spatial changes in land use and landscape patterns and their effects on ecosystem services in Ghana, West Africa

Changes in land use significantly affect the environment by disrupting the natural landscape patterns. These changes may alter the ecological processes that affect the flow and provision of ecosystem services. In this study, we quantified land-use changes and the effects of landscape patterns on estimated Ecosystem Service Values (ESVs) at spatial and temporal scales in Ghana for four different years: 1995, 2005, 2015, and 2020. Using Fragstats spatial software, we computed landscape metrics to calculate the landscape patterns of the study area. We established a relationship between ecosystem services and landscape patterns by using correlation and regression analyses. The dominant land use in Ghana found in decreasing order were agriculture, forest, and savannah. The proportions covered by settlement and bare land were relatively small. The estimated ESVs for the study periods were US$172.11 billion in 1995, US$166.38 billion in 2005, US$166.07 billion in 2015 and US$166.59 in 2020. The entire decline observed was very significant (US$5.52 billion) because of the huge reduction in wetlands during this period. Linear multiple regression and correlation analyses revealed the relationships between ecosystem services and landscape patterns. According to the regression models, the landscape metrics of landscape composition and configuration had a net effect on the individual ecosystem services. This study provides useful reference material for land use policy makers, managers, and institutions involved in the implementation of policies and conservation practices to enhance the provision of ecosystem services.

Modeling urban tree growth as a part of the green infrastructure to estimate ecosystem services in urban planning

Motivation: Planting urban trees is important for urban development. Foliage reflects, scatters, and absorbs incoming shortwave solar radiation, thus reducing the energy flow to the underlying surface, including streets, houses, and humans. Shaded areas, with primarily anthropogenic substrates, are not as heated as nonshaded areas. Subsequently, temperature, radiation and its influence on morbidity of fauna and flora are comparatively lower in these areas.Materials and Methods: Statistical methods were applied to assess the allometric functions of urban trees. The analyzed data were obtained from the tree cadaster of Magdeburg City, Germany, which contains information from 1936 to 2021. As of June 2022, the tree cadaster contained 89,766 trees. The tree species Acer campestre, Acer platanoides, Malus spp., and Quercus robur were subjected to investigation. Nine temperature optimum (TO)/precipitation optimum (PO) scenarios were considered, and their effects on the allometric relationships on the tree species were determined, respectively: 1. TO 17–19°C/PO 450–550 mm, 2. TO 19–21°C/PO 450–550 mm, 3. TO 21–23°C/PO 450–550 mm., 4. TO 17–19°C/PO 550–650 mm, 5. TO 19–21°C/PO 550–650 mm, 6. TO 21–23°C/PO 550–650 mm, 7. TO 17–19°C/PO 650–750 mm, 8. TO 19–21°C/PO 650–750 mm, 9. TO 21–23°C/PO 650–750 mm.Results and Discussion: In six of nine scenarios, a significant correlation was evident for temperature. Water uptake was found to be significant in scenario 6. No significant correlation for competition and breast head diameter growth could be determined in any scenario. Five of the nine scenarios were significantly comparable. While competition was evident as conditionally non-significant (p-value = 0.069 & 0.058), for the elevation forecast in scenarios 3 & 6 only, dependence was evident in all other scenarios. Regarding the crown diameter, temperature was significant in 3 of 9 scenarios. No significant relationship was found for water uptake and competition.Conclusions: No clear abiotic optimum could be identified. Thus, a continuous adjustment of the parameters is necessary to refine the growth functions. Moreover, the growth function adaptation according to the different age phases of trees might be considered on the long term.

The Nature Smart Cities business model: A rapid decision-support and scenario analysis tool to reveal the multi-benefits of green infrastructure investments

Incorporating natural spaces within urban areas has been shown to have multiple benefits. However, despite greening and adaptation strategies at different levels of government, progress remains slow with a lack of easy to use and comprehensive tools identified as key to overcoming this. This paper presents a co-designed tool with academic and local authority partners to demonstrate the ecosystem service benefits of small-scale urban green infrastructure projects. Through the tool, users can readily assess the impact of green infrastructure investments on the delivery of a selection of ecosystem services in the early stages of a project. Furthermore, the tool provides a standardised assessment of cultural ecosystem services’ contributions, as well as offering a method to score spatial designs on the impact on habitat for biodiversity. Use of the tool is demonstrated using a pilot study in Kapelle, the Netherlands. The results set out an overview of the impacts of the spatial design on estimated ecosystem service delivery. They also show the tool’s potential to add value in early project stages and as a planning and design tool, helping to maximise the benefits that can be achieved through green infrastructure design. Complementing these arguments with ball-park estimations on green infrastructure costs, the Nature Smart Cities Business Model aims to offer public sector officers the means to create a business case for green infrastructure measures, facilitating the translation from strategies to actual plans, thus benefitting green infrastructure implementation in the public realm.

Variations in ecosystem service provision of two functionally similar bivalve habitats

ABSTRACT The quantification of ecosystem services (ES) remains challenging and can result in biases towards data-rich ES in management. For infaunal bivalves, little quantitative in situ data are available on the ES they provide, and differences between functionally similar species in different habitats are rarely considered. Here, we aimed to measure and compare the ecosystem functions (primary production, nutrient processing, water clearance rates) underpinning water quality regulation in an estuarine intertidal and subtidal bivalve habitat (dominated by Austrovenus stutchburyi and Paphies australis respectively). In situ benthic chambers were used to measure sediment–water column solute fluxes (NH4 +, N2, O2) and clearance rates which were scaled up (accounting for habitat differences; e.g. inundation period) to daily estimates of ES potential. Higher hourly microphytobenthic productivity, nitrogen recycling and water filtration were observed for the intertidal bivalve habitat. These differences were attributed to environmental differences rather than differences in bivalve biomass. However, scaling these rates to daily ES estimates showed that inundation period will restrict water quality regulating services in the intertidal. Measuring multiple ecosystem functions in situ provides an important step forward in ES quantification and accounts for ecological complexity, feedbacks and highlights habitat-specific differences in how functionally similar species contribute to ES.

Valuation Methods in Ecosystem Services: A Meta-analysis

Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, including provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. The Meta-analysis of this seminar was reviewed to identify, describe, and choose an appropriate ecosystem valuation method. Four major and nine sub-ecosystem services valuation methods were reviewed from scientific literature sources. Direct market-valuation methods are used to estimate ecosystem services via the use of direct market prices and production functions, indirect market valuation methods are used to estimate when direct markets for many ecosystem goods and services do not exist, direct market prices are missing, and stated preference valuation methods are used when no market prices are available, indirect market valuation methods are not possible, and the change in ecosystem services is hypothetical. The indirect market valuation methods can be used to estimate economic values for all types of ecosystem services. Ecosystem service modeling is used in integrating all the spatial and temporal dynamics of ecosystem services. The strength and limitations of each ecosystem services valuations method are summarized to know and choose appropriate valuation methods. The analysis shows different valuation methods exist and have been applied to estimate the values of different ecosystem services, but their appropriateness under specific conditions or limitations is not uniform. Thus, further study on the pros and cons of valuation methods will be needed to choose appropriate ecosystem valuation methods.

Comparing the Structure, Function, Value, and Risk of Managed and Unmanaged Trees along Rights-of-Way and Streets in Massachusetts

Trees provide numerous benefits in urban areas, including improving stormwater retention and filtration, removing gaseous and particulate pollutants from the air, sequestering atmospheric carbon, and reducing ambient temperature. However, trees also pose risks in urban areas. Trees growing near overhead electrical utility lines cause a large proportion of electrical power outages. To mitigate this risk, arborists frequently and sometimes severely prune trees near overhead utilities for clearance and to reduce the likelihood of failure. Ostensibly, urban trees distant from utility lines are not pruned as frequently or severely. This study aimed to (i) assess factors related to both individual trees and the sample populations of trees growing near and away from overhead utility lines, and (ii) determine whether those factors differed between the two groups. In total, 200 utility easement plots and 200 non-utility control plots were distributed in Eversource Energy’s distribution territories, encompassing 2361 trees in total. Diameter at breast height (DBH), crown height and spread, percent crown missing, percent twig dieback, and likelihood of failure were gathered for each tree in the study. These variables were compared individually among study groups, and used as inputs to calculate estimated ecosystem service delivery using USFS iTree Eco v6. Overall, trees in control plots were larger and delivered more ecosystem services, per tree, than trees in utility plots. However, on a population level, trees in utility plots were more populous and delivered more aggregate ecosystem services than those in control plots. Although the aesthetics of utility tree pruning is often debated, there were no differences in likelihood of failure ratings between trees in control and utility plots. These findings may help to frame trees near overhead utility lines, commonly seen as risks or eyesores, as valuable green infrastructure and community assets.

Estimating Willingness to Pay for Alpine Pastures: A Discrete Choice Experiment Accounting for Attribute Non-Attendance

Alpine pastures generate important ecosystem services, some closely related to the environment, others to historical and cultural aspects. The economic valuation of these services helps their recognition in public policies, thus encouraging their conservation and improvement. Discrete Choice Experiments are particularly useful in estimating ecosystem services as they allow the evaluation of each individual ecosystem service, allowing for policy modulation. However, preferences and willingness to pay may be influenced by some heuristics that respondents adopt when making their choices. The present study contributes to the Attribute-Non-Attendance (ANA) literature by analyzing the effect of serial ANA on WTP for the improvement of the ecosystem services of an Alpine pasture, the Entrelor pasture located in Val d’Aosta (North-West Italy). The novelty of this study is that we investigated ANA by asking a first group of respondents which attributes were ignored during choices, and a second group which attributes they considered. Our results show that considering ANA matters in DCE. In particular, framing the question positively (which attributes were attended) yields differences in marginal WTPs that are significantly and systematically higher for all the attributes. Conversely, with negative framing, differences in marginal WTP seem to be insignificant and unstable both in terms of magnitude and sign. Moreover, positively framing the ANA question can be more informative, as ANA appears more frequently. These results suggest that respondents probably do not feel judged for not having adopted the expected degree of attention with a positively framed ANA question.

The economic value of grassland ecosystem services: A global meta‐analysis

AbstractBackgroundGrasslands provide a wide variety of ecosystem services that contribute to human wellbeing. While an increasing number of studies are evaluating the monetary value of grassland ecosystem services, most of them focus on specific grassland ecosystem services at regional or local scales, and they use different assessment methods.MethodsThis paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the economic value of global grassland ecosystem services based on a meta‐analysis of 702 observations from 134 primary studies.ResultsThe economic values of different ecosystem services cover a wide range of grassland types, regions, and estimation methods. The annual economic value per hectare ranges from $3955 for semidesert grasslands to $5466 for tropical grasslands. On average, regulating services have the highest value, which is approximately four times that of provisioning services or approximately eight times that of food supply services. Several factors impact the estimated ecosystem service values, including the evaluation method, source and year of publication, and study site. The results indicate that the annual economic value of global grasslands exceeds $20.8 trillion.ConclusionsThe findings of this study not only provide useful information for understanding the economic value of various ecosystem services associated with different types of grasslands but also have important policy implications for the ecological conservation of grassland globally.

ОЦІНКА СТАНУ ЗЕЛЕНИХ ЗОН ЯК ПОТЕНЦІЙНИХ МОЖЛИВОСТЕЙ НАДАННЯ НИМИ ЕКОСИСТЕМНИХ ПОСЛУГ

Manifestations of the environment to provide human needs with benefits arising from the healthy functioning of ecosystems are called ecosystem services (ES). Taking into account the large number of population – consumers of ES, which is concentrated in cities, green areas as the main providers of ES require significant attention. Accordingly to this, the objects of our study are the urban green areas (on the example of Kyiv). Despite the existing attempts to estimate ecosystem services in monetary terms, the cost of providing some of them (primarily regulating and cultural services) is almost impossible to estimate. In this case, attention should be focused on the condition and functions of ecosystems, and as a consequence – ES, which are different in each system, but provided in maximum volumes only in its sustainable functioning. After all, in a normal (stable) state, the ecosystem gives all its functions, and therefore provides its maximum benefits – ES. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to determine the urban green areas condition, as a prerequisite for their sustainable functioning as the potential possibility of providing ES by them. The study is based on the comparison of natural and actual vegetation cover of Kyiv. The parameters by which this correspondence is determined are the type of vegetation and the proportion of the green zone covered with typical (natural) vegetation. As a result of the work, based on remote sensing data, indicators of the state of individual green areas of the city were obtained, as well as averaged indicators for the city, individual administrative districts, etc. It is determined that the actual vegetation of green areas in Kyiv corresponds to the natural on 63.1 % of the green spaces area. Such condition is “close to natural”, according to Harrington’s desirability scale. However, such indicators differ significantly with administrative districts. They range from 34 % in Pecherskyi to 74 % in Sviatoshynskyi district. The example given in the paper demonstrates that even two neighboring green spaces can differ significantly in their condition, which, in particular, determines their opportunities to providing ES. These indicators will be very useful in further research on the overall assessment of ES, because, according to the general algorithm, it consists in determining 1. the condition of the green zone – potential opportunities in the provision of ES; 2. the efficiency of its functioning – the real volumes of ES provision; 3. the risks of ES loss. The results of this work are the implementation of the first component of the general algorithm and can be used in further research on the assessment of the real volumes of ecosystem services and the risks of their loss.

Changes in Ecosystem Service Values in Response to the Planting ofEucalyptus and AcaciaSpecies in the Gilgel Abay Watershed, Northwest Ethiopia

Plantation of Eucalyptus and Acacia species emerges as a promising alternative in the tropics in a scenario of high demand for provisional and regulating ecosystem services. The research aimed to characterize the spatiotemporal dynamics of ecosystem service values in response to planting practices of Eucalyptus and Acacia species in the Gilgel Abay watershed, Northwest Ethiopia. The threshold values of NDVI were employed to classify land-use/covers using cloud-free satellite imagery data in 1984, 1998, 2013, and 2021. The benefit transfer method of modified value coefficient was used to estimate ecosystem service values (ESVs) of the study watershed. Total ESV decreased from 1984 to 1998 due to the expansion of cultivated land at the expense of natural forests, shrubs, and grasslands. As food production increased, performance levels of climate regulation, erosion control, and nutrient cycle declined. In contrast, the service values of erosion control, climate regulation, and nutrient cycles were the major contributors to the overall increase in ESV from 1998 to 2021. This was caused by expanding Acacia and Eucalyptus species plantation at the expense of cultivated land in the watershed. The research revealed a trade-off relationship between provisional and other ecosystem services, such as regulating and supporting ecosystem service values in response to land-use system transformation. As a result, it is suggested that synergistic interactions between regulating, provisional, and supporting ecosystem service values be developed by merging plantation and cultivated land. Maintaining the right proportions of degraded plantations, protected natural forests, farmlands, and wetland ecosystems can be the most effective way to provide optimal multiple ecosystem services.

ASSESSING URBAN FOREST CANOPY COVER IN GREAT PLAIN CONSERVATION AREA (DÜZCE CITY, TURKEY) BETWEEN 1984 AND 2015

Abstract. Urban trees and forests are essential components of the urban environment. They can provide numerous ecosystem services and goods, including but not limited to recreational opportunities and aesthetic values, removal of air pollutants, improving air and water quality, providing shade and cooling effect, reducing energy use, and storage of atmospheric CO2. However, urban trees and forests have been in danger of being lost by dense housing resulting from population growth in the cities since the 1950s, leading to increased local temperature, pollution level, and flooding risk. Thus, determining the status of urban trees and forests is necessary for comprehensive understanding and quantifying the ecosystem services and goods. Tree canopy cover is a relatively quick, easy to obtain, and cost-effective urban forestry metric broadly used to estimate ecosystem services and goods of the urban forest. This study aimed to determine urban forest canopy cover areas and monitor the changes between 1984–2015 for the Great Plain Conservation area (GPCA) that has been declared as a conservation Area (GPCA) in 2017, located on the border of Düzce City (Western Black Sea Region of Turkey). Although GPCA is a conservation area for agricultural purposes, it consists of the city center with 250,000 population and most settlement areas. A random point sampling approach, the most common sampling approach, was applied to estimate urban tree canopy cover and their changes over time from historical aerial imageries. Tree canopy cover ranged from 16.0% to 27.4% within the study period. The changes in urban canopy cover between 1984–1999 and 1999–2015 were statistically significant, while there was no statistical difference compared to the changes in tree canopy cover between 1984–2015. The result of the study suggested that an accurate estimate of urban tree canopy cover and monitoring long-term canopy cover changes are essential to determine the current situation and the trends for the future. It will help city planners and policymakers in decision-making processes for the future of urban areas.

Integration of artificial intelligence–based LULC mapping and prediction for estimating ecosystem services for urban sustainability: past to future perspective

Integration of artificial intelligence–based LULC mapping and prediction for estimating ecosystem services for urban sustainability: past to future perspective

An integrative approach to planning for community-based adaptation to sea-level rise in Thailand

This paper outlines an integrative process for community-based adaptation plans to sea-level rise (SLR) effects in Kohklang Sub-district, Thailand. Three objectives guide this research: (1) to identify flood prone areas and develop a coastal vulnerability index (CVI) (e.g., to estimate ecosystem service impacts and economic loss in flood prone areas); (2) to co-develop risk profiles and social vulnerability assessment; and (3) to synthesize assessment outcomes and generate corresponding adaptation plans and recommendations. A knowledge co-production process was used to link participatory action research (PAR) on social conditions and changes with technical assessments of sea-level rise simulations at 0.5 and 1 m to identify flood prone areas and develop the CVI. Additional data collection and analyses methods include a review of literature and synthesis of expert opinion (n = 5) regarding SLR effects on estimated losses in ecosystem services and community livelihoods, semi-structured interviews (n = 50) and focus group discussions (n = 17 people). We find that a co-production process of natural and social science, together with local knowledge, provides a holistic and integrative identification of impacts of sea level rise and community-based adaptation plans and policy. Initial results were synthesized and then presented to multiple stakeholders in a Kohklang community workshop to further clarify findings and confirm insights. This research process has highlighted the significance of transdisciplinary and participatory approaches to developing household- and community-level policy and plans for adaptation to sea level rise. Outcomes of the research include practical recommendations to address vulnerability concerns, as well as a draft adaptation plan for inclusion in the strategy of the sub-district administrative authority.

Integrating supply and demand factors for estimating ecosystem services scarcity value and its response to urbanization in typical mountainous and hilly regions of south China

In the process of rapid urbanization, the decline in ecosystems' physical supply value is a direct result of the increasing demands of human development. The ecosystem services value combined with supply and demand factors can be used to obtain the ecosystem services scarcity value (ESSV). These ecosystems with larger ESSVs warrant increased protection, or at the very least a development plan to ensure a balance between their continued existence and human usage. However, urbanization and other developmental effects have often caused the ESSV of those regions to be disregarded, which produces an imbalance in the ecosystem. This paper evaluated the spatial differentiation of ESSV based on heterogeneous units in the Yuebei region, China. Then, a spatial response analysis of the ESSV to urbanization according to the spatial correlation model and Getis-Ord Gi* was conducted. The results showed that the ecosystem service physical supply value declined due to urban sprawl in 1990–2015, but the ESSV increased sharply during the same time with its acceleration being particularly strong after 2000. Areas with higher ESSV were concentrated in the northern region due to a higher prevalence of woodland. Urbanization accelerated significantly after 2000, and it is found that similar tendencies of ESSV and urbanization occurred over the same period. Surprisingly, the ESSV was negatively correlated with urbanization in local regions, and their interaction continued to increase over time. The spatial hotspot map of the ESSV and urbanization also formed an opposite pattern. In addition, the grid number of High-Low and Low-High types is more than half of the total number of aggregated grids. According to the results, understanding the variation in the ESSV clearly due to urbanization and identifying their interaction in local regions can provide a more specific direction for future resource adjustment and ecosystem service improvements.

Improving methods to calculate the loss of ecosystem services provided by urban trees using LiDAR and aerial orthophotos

In this paper we propose a methodology for combining remotely sensed data with field measurements to assess selected tree parameters (diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree species) required by the i-Tree Eco model to estimate ecosystem services (ES) provided by urban trees. We determined values of ES provided by trees in 2017 in Racibórz (a city in South Poland) and estimated the loss of ES from January 1, 2017 to March 5, 2017, a period of changing legislation that temporarily allowed removal of trees on private property without any permission from city authorities. We applied Canopy Height Models (CHM; GSD 1.0 m) generated from two sets of ALS LiDAR point clouds (acquisitions on June 11, 2011 and March 5, 2017) and performed tree crown segmentations using the GEOBIA approach. Physical attributes were estimated for each tree using predictive models, developed based on field tree inventory . The reference areas for parameterizing the segmentation algorithm and assessing tree species composition were established in Racibórz, while reference data required for assessment of DBH were obtained from the MONIT-AIR project (from Municipality of Kraków). We found that in 2017, 988.79 ha of Racibórz (13.2 % of city area) was covered by the crowns of 264 471 trees, providing ES structural values worth over 384 mil €. The structural value of ES lost in the first months of 2017 (during which 5 075 trees were removed) was about 3.5 mil €. We concluded that in the face of information on tree crown cover that is often missing from city databases, tree inventories require application of a combination of multi-source and multi-resolution spatial analyses, including: administrative decisions for tree removal with exact location, predictive modelling of selected biometrical tree information, automatic crown segmentation on CHM and interpretation of regularly updated color infrared (CIR) aerial orthophotos.

Impacts of Infrastructure Developments on Ecosystem Services Potential in Istanbul

Istanbul has been subject to drastic spatial changes in the last decade due to major investments in the northern section of the city. The primary purpose of the research was to interpret the ecological outcomes of spatial use changes due to such urban development activities and enhance the environmental impact assessment process by adopting an analytical and holistic approach. The approach used in the analysis is based on a model called “matrix model” developed specifically to estimate ecosystem services (ES) capacity of a given area depending on the spatial use types. With the use of this method, one can estimate how spatial use influences ES capacity in positive or negative ways, which ES type is affected most, and which part of the spatial change causes most impact on ecological assets. The methodology is applied for three different investment projects in Istanbul, respectively: North Marmara Motorway (NMM), Istanbul Airport, and Canal Istanbul. While the first two have been mostly completed, the third is in the planning phase. Corine Land Cover datasets for 2012 and 2018 are used as basis datasets within the methodology, and spatial plans of Canal Istanbul are used for future projections. Based on these datasets, ES capacity analysis is carried out for each year for the area of investment, and estimation results are compared. The analysis results indicate that these investments have caused and will cause severe ES losses as expected. The outputs prove that the “matrix model” can be used to evaluate ecological impacts in a straightforward, efficient, and inclusive way for evaluating spatial changes. The authors suggest that environmental impact assessments for such major investments must represent a comprehensive outlook based on more simplistic but yet informative approaches that highlight the potential losses of not only ecological assets but also their functions and benefits. In this context, it is strongly recommended that there is a paradigm shift in the understanding of the “environmental impact” in a direction where environment is not acted upon as a solid, rigid, and stable “land cover” but instead a living organism that produces benefits and services for the whole components of the ecosystem on earth, including humankind.