Esterified Oil Research Articles

Comparison of Photo‐Esterification Capability of Bismuth Vanadate with Reduced Graphene Oxide Bismuth Vanadate (RGO/BiVO4) Composite for Biodiesel Production from High Free Fatty Acid Containing Non‐Edible Oil

AbstractBiodiesel has gained much more attention as an alternative and renewable energy source due to the continuous exhaustion of petroleum reserves and their inauspicious environmental effects. Non‐edible feedstocks are economically viable for the production of biodiesel but the presence of higher amount of free fatty acids (FFAs) in these oils is a main hurdle for getting good quality biodiesel. This issue can be addressed through esterification prior to transesterification of oil. This work was designed to evaluate soapnut oil as a source for biodiesel production. Moreover, the catalytic activity of two sunlight active photocatalysts; BiVO4 and RGO/BiVO4 was also compared for the esterification of higher FFA content present in soapnut oil. BiVO4 and RGO/BiVO4 were characterized through SEM, XRD and FT‐IR. Experimental results revealed that RGO/BiVO4 exhibited higher catalytic activity as compare to BiVO4 for the esterification of FFA under sunlight irradiation. Different process variables were optimized and maximum conversion of FFA (88 %) was obtained at 3 : 1 methanol to oil ratio, 5 % catalyst dose, 300 rpm stirring speed and 3 h of reaction time. Esterified oil was then transesterified by using MgO‐KOH heterogeneous catalyst and maximum yield (94 %) of soapnut methyl esters (SNMEs) was obtained at 9 : 1 methanol to oil ratio, 3 % catalyst dose, 2 h reaction time, 80 °C temperature and at 300 rpm stirring speed. The physic‐chemical analysis of synthesized biodiesel revealed that it meets ASTM standards.

ESTERIFIKASI DAN DEASIDIFIKASI MINYAK JELANTAH PADA PEMBUATAN BIODIESEL MENGGUNAKAN KATALIS ABU TONGKOL JAGUNG

Esterification and deacidification of waste cooking oil using alkali neutralization for biodiesel production using corncob ash as an alternative base catalyst was carried out. This study aimed to attainone of the desired transesterification conditionsby reducing free fatty acids content of waste cooking oil. Esterification was carried out by reacting waste cooking oil and methanol with certain volume ratio and acid catalyst (H2SO4) at 50oC for 4 hours. Deacidification was carried out by adding 0.5 N NaOH solution (15% excess alkali) at 60oC for 30 minutes. Esterification of waste cooking oil using acid catalyst before transesterification with corn cobs ash catalyst significantly increased the efficiency of free fatty acid conversion (92.69%) under volume ratio of 25% methanol /oil and 0.5% acid catalyst for 4 hours reaction. Deacidification of esterified oil with FFA content of 2.29 mg KOH /g oil through alkali neutralization at 55oC using alkaline content of 0.8 N reduces free fatty acid content to 0.47 mg KOH /g oil. Transesterification results showed that biodiesel component of waste cooking oil was dominated by polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid / C18-2), monounsaturated fatty acids (palmitic acid / C16-1 and oleic acid / C18-1) and saturated acids (palmitic / C16-0 and stearic acid / C18-0). Most of the biodiesel products were similar to those of the diesel physical characters. Biodiesel made of waste cooking oil meets the biodiesel quality standard (SNI 7182: 2015) for such parameters of density, viscosity, acid number, saponification value, iodine number and cetane. Esterification and neutralization process are effective in reducing free fatty acids content of waste cooking oil before being used in transesterification with corn cobs ash catalyst.
 Keywords: esterification, neutralization, alkali, waste cooking oil, biodiesel, corn cobs ash

Heavea brasiliensis (Rubber seed): An alternative source of renewable energy

This research work studied the suitability of using Cocoa Pod Husk (CPH) as a base catalyst for transesterification of Heavea brasiliensis oil (HBO) to Heavea brasiliensis methyl ester (HBME) via three-step modeling and optimization technique using response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN). The first step modeled and optimized the extraction of oil from Heavea brasiliensis seed using soxhlet extractor. The esterified conversion of high free fatty acid HBO was carried out in the second step while the third step involved the optimization of the transesterification of the esterified Heavea brasiliensis oil (HBOE) to HBME using CPH.Results showed the maximum HBO yield of 43.50% (w/w), at the following conditions; sample weight of 50 g, solvent volume of 250 ml and extraction time of 40 min (Run 11). The predicted values were validated in triplicate in order to determine the optimum yield, and an average content of 37.85% (w/w) and 39.65% (w/w) were obtained for RSM and ANN, respectively. Acid catalyst esterification step showed the predicted values were validated in triplicate in order to determine the minimum acid value, and mean values of 1.76 (RSM) and 1.86 (ANN). The catalytic activity of CPH employed for biodiesel production produced 97% (w/w). The predicted optimum yield was validated in triplicate, and the mean yields of 94.06% (w/w) and 96.65% (w/w) were obtained for both RSM and ANN, respectively. The produced HBME in this study is within the limit of methyl ester standard specifications prescribed by ASTM D6751 and EN 14,214.

Utilization of waste automotive landfill engine oil for fatty acid methyl ester synthesis using microwave irradiation: an intensified approach

With increasing automotive vehicles, disposal of waste automotive landfill engine oil (WALEO) is foremost challenge. Present work investigated synthesis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) from WALEO using first stage of orthophosphoric-catalyzed acid esterification followed by subsequent stage of potassium hydroxide-catalyzed alkaline transesterification using conventional and intensified microwave methods. Process parameters for study were molar ratio of oil–methanol, and catalyst concentration. The optimize parameters of acid esterification for reducing acid value from 33.72 to 1.71 mg of KOH/g of oil were catalyst concentration: 12% weight/weight, reaction temperature: 60 $$^\circ{\rm C} $$ and molar ratio: 1:2 using conventional method. Nearly same results were obtained using microwave-assisted esterification but there was considerable decrease in process time requirement using intensified approach of microwave irradiations. Time required for processing was 210 and 30 min for conventional and microwave methods, respectively. Microwave accelerated the rate of reaction by 7.5 times. There was substantial decrease in energy requirement for esterification process and energy utilization was 14.2–26.4 mg/kJ for conventional and microwave methods, respectively. Transesterification of esterified oil were performed using microwave method. The optimized parameters for transesterification process were molar ratio: 1:6, catalyst concentration: 1% weight/weight, reaction time: 15 min and yield: 92.3%.

Tribological characteristics of detonation sprayed alumina coatings

Abstract Thermally sprayed aluminium oxide coatings are extensively used for functional applications where high wear resistance is of high significance. Among the various thermal spray coating methods, D-gun (Detonation gun) coating technology produces alumina coatings of excellent quality. Components made with D-Gun coatings are used in industrial as well as automotive applications. There is an increasing need to identify, analyse and determine the improved performance of such coatings. The present work aims to study the characteristics of the bio-lubricant- Esterified coconut oil and its influence on the wear characteristics of such alumina coatings. The effect of the anti-wear additive, Zinc Dialkyl Dithio Phosphate (ZDDP) on the tribological behaviour of the lubricant and hence on the coated samples, has also been studied. The coefficient of friction and wear were found to be decreasing with the addition of ZDDP. The average coefficient of friction was found to be in the boundary lubrication regime

Two-step catalytic reactive extraction and transesterification process via ultrasonic irradiation for biodiesel production from solid Jatropha oil seeds

A two-step catalytic reactive extraction and transesterification process was adopted to synthesize biodiesel from solid Jatropha seeds, a non-edible source with high free acid content, directly using ultrasound irradiation. From the intensification of reactive extraction process coupled with ultrasound, esterified oil with satisfactory extraction efficiency of 84.0 ± 0.5%, FAME purity of 38.6 ± 1.3% and esterification efficiency of 71.1 ± 1.3% were obtained. High acid value (AV) of 18.2 ± 0.5 mg KOH/g was successfully reduced to 5.3 ± 0.2 mg KOH/g. In the subsequent transesterification of esterified Jatropha oil, FAME purity of 99.0 ± 1.3% and biodiesel yield of 85.2 ± 1.3% were attained at KOH loading of 1.5 wt.%, methanol to oil molar ratio of 12:1 and ultrasonic amplitude of 60% after 15 min reaction time. From the artificial neural network (ANN) modelling, coefficient of determination (R2) for FAME purity and biodiesel yield were found to be 0.9926 and 0.9845, respectively, which proved that the model had good fit with the experimental data. Under the same optimized reaction conditions, this process intensification could achieve higher FAME purity (99.0% vs. 91.8%), biodiesel yield (85.2% vs. 75.6%) and AV reduction efficiency (88.5% vs. 88.2%) than conventional magnetic stirring.

Free fatty acid optimization and modeling of biodiesel production from high viscous rubber seed oil– A comparative study of RSM and ANN

ABSTRACT Free fatty acid (FFA) optimization consequent to transesterification of high viscous rubber seed oil by solid base catalyst studied is presented in this work. Presence of more FFA in the feedstock leads to soap formation in the case of base catalysis and hence, pre-treatment is required to reduce the high acid value of raw rubber seed oil. FFA of raw rubber seed oil is reduced to 1.64% by acid catalyzed esterification and the FFA of esterified oil is minimized to 0.115% after biodiesel formation using fluorite (CaF2) derived from the calcination of fluorspar. Response surface methodology (RSM) equipped with central composite design (CCD) is used for FFA optimization. From the RSM analysis, the FFA of synthesized biodiesel is expressed as a quadratic model having a coefficient of determination, R2of value 0.8179. From the 3D-surface plots and 2D contour plots obtained from RSM analysis, it is observed that reaction time is the most significant process parameter that influences FFA optimization. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) modeling with the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm is used for model network training in rubber seed oil FFA optimization. Mean square error (MSE) of 7.04 × 10−4 and coefficient of determination R2 value of 0.993 was observed at the best validation performance of 0.0019395 at epoch 5. On comparing the coefficient of determination of R2 values observed for both RSM and ANN, it is observed that the value obtained from ANN model fits the data well with minimum error.

Simplex Lattice Design Method for the Optimization of Non-Edible Oils Mixture Composition as Feedstock for Biodiesel Synthesis Using Reactive Distillation

The diminished of fossil fuel becomes a critical issue today. Thus, it is essential to develop alternative energy resources which are renewable and environmental friendly. Among the prospective alternative is biodiesel. Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester) is produced by combining vegetable oils with alcohol via transestefication reaction. To avoid conflict between food and energy needs, the uses of non-edible oils as raw material is suggested. Commonly, biodiesel synthesis employs a single type of vegetable oil feed-stock. The dependency on a certain feed-stock could cause an increasing price due to the high demand and low supply. Thus, it is beneficial to apply diversification by employing multiple feed-stocks or mixture of non-edible oils as biodiesel feedstocks. However, the best composition of the multiple feed­stocks is needed to obtain the optimum yield of biodiesel. In this work, mixture of non-edible oils, i.e. jatropha, nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) seed, and used cooking oils were applied as biodiesel feedstocks. Non-edible oils are cheap but have high free fatty acid (FFA). The high FFA is not favorable for the alkaline-catalyzed transesterification since it will cause undesired saponification reaction and lower biodiesel yield. Hence, pretreatment to reduce FFA content is crucial prior to transesterification. In this work, esterification of FFA in vegetable oils mixture (jatropha, nyamplung, and used cooking oils) with methanol using reactive distillation in the presence of SnCl2 catalyst was conducted as pretreatment step of biodiesel production. Various compositions of the oils mixture were employed. To determine the best formulation of feed-stocks, Simplex Lattice Design Method (SLDM) was used for the optimization of non-edible oils mixture composition as feedstock for biodiesel synthesis using reactive distillation. The prediction using SLDM was validated with the experimental data. It was found that the optimal composition of oil mixture was the mixture contains 37.291 v/v% jatropha oil + 37.709 v/v% nyamplung oil + 25 v/v% used cooking oil. This composition of feedstocks revealed the FFA conversion of 85.93% (prediction) and 86.03% (experiment). The desirability value was 0.937 which indicated the validity of the SLDM optimization method. The esterified oil mixture was then underwent transesterification reaction to produce biodiesel. The yield of biodiesel demonstrated 99.65 % purity and density of 884 kg/m3.

Performance Characteristics of Variable Performance Compression Ratio Engine using Esterified Cotton Seed Oil

Performance Characteristics of Variable Performance Compression Ratio Engine using Esterified Cotton Seed Oil

Optimisation and effective utilisation of esterified rice bran oil in a turbocharged VCR engine by analysing its operating characteristics

ABSTRACT The increasing population and the vehicle strength are alarming that arises the importance of the issue to deal with alternative fuels in existing diesel engine without modification The biodiesel is derived from vegetable oils to replace the conventional diesel fuel. In this research, we have considered the esterified rice bran oil as biodiesel. Even though it is edible oil, the consumption of rice, particularly in south India, is more when compared with the other parts of the world that enables the preparation of the fuel quickly. The rice bran oil prepared by the trans-esterification method and tested in a VCR engine in blends of 10% and 20% with pure diesel. The engine compression ratios were chosen as 16:1, 17:1 and 18:1. This research includes investigation on performance, combustion and emission by varying the compression ratios for the blends and compared with pure diesel and conducted experiments with a turbocharger, fitted with the engine. The results obtained were presented and analysed to optimise the suitable blend and compression ratio.

Decreasing the acid value of pyrolysis oil via esterification using ZrO2/SBA-15 as a solid acid catalyst

The high acid value of pyrolysis oil obtained from biologic oil is the main drawback that not only affects the properties of pyrolysis oil, but also leads to the corrosion of equipment. Herein, pyrolysis oil obtained from rubber seed oil was upgraded via esterification using ZrO2/SBA-15 as a solid acid catalyst. Using ZrO2/SBA-15 as a catalyst, the acid value of the esterified pyrolysis oil obtained from rubber seed oil was only 1.2 mg KOH•g−1. The density and kinematic viscosity both reached the standard range of 0# diesel oil. The excellent catalytic activity of ZrO2/SBA-15 was studied using NH3-TPD and Py-IR. Furthermore, the conversion reached 96.7% when the ZrO2/SBA-15 catalyst was re-used three times, which shows the ZrO2/SBA-15 catalyst possessed excellent catalytic activity and stability for upgrading pyrolysis oil via esterification.

A novel approach to utilize esterified rice bran oil as an additive with gasoline and ethanol blends in MPFI SI engine.

ABSTRACT In this work, we have attempted to add biodiesel as an additive with gasoline and ethanol blend to analyze the effect on performance and emission characteristics. The esterified rice bran oil is chosen as an additive. This focus of this work is to study the behavior of an SI engine for various blend proportions and to identify the optimum blend proportion that yields better results. MPFI engine was used to conduct the load test with gasoline as the base reference fuel. Blends of gasoline-ethanol and rice bran oil were prepared, and the tests were done for all the blends. The observed results were presented and discussed. Adding ethanol to the gasoline results in improved combustion that causes an increase in brake thermal efficiency and brake power. With esterified rice bran oil as an additive gives a reduction in specific fuel consumption, hydrocarbon emission, and carbon monoxide emissions. The optimum blends that have excellent benefits are identified.

Process optimization of Calophyllum inophyllum-waste cooking oil mixture for biodiesel production using Donax deltoides shells as heterogeneous catalyst

In the present work, the waste material Donax deltoides shells (DDS) was utilized as a heterogeneous base catalyst for biodiesel production from Calophyllum inophyllum oil (CIO)-waste cooking oil (WCO) mixture. Non-edible CIO possessing 65 mg of KOH g− 1 of acid value was mixed with WCO of low acid value in different proportions. The acid value was reduced to 33.3 mg of KOH g− 1 of oil by using a volumetric ratio of 1:1 and it was further reduced to 5.6 mg of KOH g− 1 of oil by acid catalyzed esterification process and used for biodiesel production. DDS was converted into active CaO catalyst by calcination and the catalyst characterization was performed using different instrumental techniques. The impact of calcined DDS (catalyst) concentration, reaction time and methanol to esterified oil volumetric ratio on biodiesel conversion was investigated to optimize the transesterification reaction using response surface methodology based central composite design. The biodiesel conversion was determined by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and a maximum biodiesel conversion of 96.5% was achieved with catalyst concentration of 7.5 wt%, methanol to oil volumetric ratio of 63.8%, reaction time of 129.3 min, stirrer speed of 450 rpm and reaction temperature of 65 °C.

Methanolic Synthesis of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) from Waste Materials

Waste materials (carbide slurry and waste cooking oil) were explored in esterification and transesterification reactions as a viable alternative to a sustainable transport fuel production. The Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and Scanning electron microscope (SEM) techniques showed that the prepared calcium oxide had improved basic sites, calcium content and surface morphology respectively. Reduced glycerol and free fatty acids enhanced mass transfer of moieties. Alkali was supported on the calcium oxide as a bimetallic catalyst. Biodiesel prepared from the esterified high FFA oils using prepared NaOH/CaO catalyst gave good quality yield and it compared favorably with other catalysts obtaining 92.2 ± 0.31% with the prepared catalyst, 90.2 ±0.57 with ACl3 and 89.7± 0.16 with NaOH. The reusability of the prepared NaOH/CaO catalyst gave an appreciable yield of 74.5% on the fourth reaction cycle.

Esterification of Microwave Induced Pyrolytic Oil from Sago Bark Waste

In this study, microwave induced pyrolytic oil from sago bark (SB) was subjected to esterification to improve its properties. Improvement on properties of the pyrolytic oil was performed via esterification with ethanol and the presence of sulfuric acid as a catalyst. The optimum esterification condition was studied using general factorial design. The esterified oil (EO) showed improved properties with pH (4–6), reduced moisture content (2.95–3.45%), density (0.9–1.1 g cm−3), and acid value (39.3–123.4 mg KOH−1 g−1), and maintained the CV (20.2–21.6 MJ kg−1). GC–MS analysis showed that EO was sulphur free, and low in carboxylic acid and oxygenated compounds. The optimal esterification condition with optimum quality of EO was at 65 °C temperature, 60 min reaction time and 1:1 ethanol to oil volume ratio. Results indicated that the EO can be potentially used in robust combustion engines upon properties refinement.

Droplet Combustion Characteristic of Biodiesel Produced from Waste Cooking Oil

Waste cooking oil is a good candidate as a diesel engines fuel substitution. Its abundant availability because it is unused waste, and its physical properties similar to diesel oil make the waste cooking oil more preferable as diesel fuel substitutes compared to other types of vegetable oil. The purpose of this study is to determine the percentage effect of waste cooking oil mixture in biodiesel fuel on droplets combustion characteristics of biodiesel that include flame visualization, ignition delay and burning rate. In this study, a mixture of waste esterified cooking oil was varied in 0% to 100%. The results showed that in the mixture of waste cooking oil biodiesel below 50%; the higher the biodiesel content in the diesel fuel mixture, the higher the maximum temperature of droplet combustion. Whereas the biodiesel cooking oil content above 50% to 100% showed a temperature that tends to be constant. In addition, the droplet combustion speed will be lower along with the increase in waste cooking oil content in biodiesel. The greater waste cooking oil content in biodiesel causes high droplet flame becomes higher. The water content in waste cooking oil biodiesel causes microexplotion in droplet combustion of biodiesel mixture of waste cooking oil and diesel.

Esterification optimization of underutilized Ceiba pentandra oil using response surface methodology

In recent years, the utilization of non-edible feedstock particularly high free fatty acid (FFA) containing Ceiba pentandra oil (CPO) has acquired an immense attention among researchers for biodiesel production. In this work, sulfuric acid-based esterification process was conducted on underutilized CPO and the process was optimized by the application of response surface methodology (RSM) using central composite design (CCD). A total of 20 experimental runs with six centre points were conducted to reduce the acid value of CPO and the effect of three independent process variables such as reaction time (30–90 min), H2SO4 catalyst concentration (0.5–1.5 vol%), and methanol to CPO volumetric ratio (1:2–1:4 vol/vol) was investigated with constant reaction temperature (60 °C) and stirrer speed (450 rpm). A quadratic model was suggested and the interaction between the selected process variables on the response acid value was evaluated using the generated 2D-contour and 3D-response surface plots that leads to the prediction of optimized esterification condition for maximum acid value reduction. Under the optimized process conditions, the acid value of underutilized CPO was reduced from 14 mg of KOH/g oil to 2.08 mg of KOH/g oil. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was performed to analyze the functional group modifications in raw and esterified oil.

Process optimization for biodiesel production from Moringa oleifera oil using conch shells as heterogeneous catalyst

The potential of conch shells (CSs) as a suitable heterogeneous basic catalyst for transesterification of high FFA content non‐edible Moringa oleifera oil (MOO) was investigated. Biodiesel was produced by a two‐step transesterification process. In the first step, high FFA content of the oil was reduced from 40.25 to 1.4% using reaction conditions of 1:2 v/v methanol to oil ratio, 1.5 vol% H2SO4 concentration, 2 h reaction time and 60°C reaction temperature. In the second step, the esterified oil was converted into biodiesel by reacting with methanol using calcined conch shells (CCSs) as a heterogeneous basic catalyst. The physiochemical characteristics of the CCS catalyst were studied by X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive X‐ray (SEM–EDAX), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis. The characterization results revealed that calcium oxide (CaO) was the major phase of CCS. The effect of process variables on biodiesel conversion was investigated by response surface methodology using Box–Behnken design and the independent variables taken for study are catalyst concentration, methanol to oil ratio and reaction time. The optimum process conditions were found to be 8.02 wt % catalyst concentration, 8.66:1 methanol to oil molar ratio and 130 min reaction time. Under these experimental conditions, methyl ester conversion of 97.06% was obtained which was in reasonable agreement with the predicted value. The structure of Moringa oleifera methyl ester (MOME) was characterized by FTIR and methyl ester conversion was determined by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H‐NMR) spectroscopy. © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 38:e13015, 2019

Prediction of performace parameters using artificial neural network for 4-stroke C I engine fueled with esterified neem oil and biogas

Experiments on the technical feasibility of the use of esterified neem oil and biogas under dual fuel mode has been carried out in a 3.7 kW diesel engine. Esterified neem oil (ENO) blends and bottled biogas was used for the experimentation. Biogas is directly mixed with the inlet air in the induction manifold and tests were carried out for varying loads and pressures. The performance parameters obtained from test were within the acceptable range for ENO and biogas combination. Mechanical efficiency was improved and ENO consumption was reduced due to higher biogas introduction; however, a distinguishable noise was noticed when further increase in supply of biogas. Artificial neural network (ANN) technique was also applied for prediction of thermal efficiency and BSFC of the engine. The input parameters for ANN method were speed, gas flow rate, temperature, total fuel consumption, and load. It was seen that ANN predicted performance values were close to experimentally obtained data when 90% of data were in training set.

Performance evaluation of adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system, artificial neural network and response surface methodology in modeling biodiesel synthesis from palm kernel oil by transesterification

ABSTRACTModeling capabilities of an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), artificial neural network (ANN) and response surface methodology (RSM) were assessed in the transesterification of esterified palm kernel oil (PKO) with methanol in the presence of KOH as a catalyst. A central composite rotatable design (CCRD) of RSM was applied using methanol/oil ratio (0.25–0.50 v/v), catalyst loading (0.75–2.00 w/v) and reaction time (30–70 min) as the independent variables and palm kernel oil biodiesel (PKOB) yield as the response. Statistical performance indicators showed ANFIS (coefficient of determination, R2 = 0.99, mean absolute error, MAE = 0.21 and mean relative percentage deviation, MRPD = 0.22%) and ANN (R2 = 0.99, MAE = 0.23, MRPD = 0.24%) models describe the process with higher precision and accuracy compared to RSM (R2 = 0.79, MAE = 1.05, MRPD = 1.12%). To maximize the PKOB yield, the process input variables investigated were optimized using an RSM optimization tool and genetic algorithm (GA) coupled with the developed ANFIS, ANN and RSM models. The best combination of the estimated process input variables (methanol/oil ratio 0.48 v/v, catalyst loading 0.86 w/v and reaction time 71.5 min) with highest PKOB yield (99.5 wt.%) was given by ANFIS-GA.