Ester Boserup Research Articles

Gender Inequalities and Economic Growth: A Longitudinal Evaluation

This longitudinal evaluation of gender inequalities and economic growth addresses key questions in the evolving debate over the character of gender differentiation and the goals of womens empowerment. These questions include: 1) whether the impact of strategies of economic growth served to enhance or undermine the status of women; 2) whether changes in the status of women were accompanied by significant changes in gender inequality; and 3) the implications for existing debates. Section I reviews several sets of literature pertinent to the questions using three general approaches: modernization-neoclassical women in development and gender and development. Section II presents the data and methods used in the evaluation. The research assessed the contending interpretations reviewed in the first section by combining another set of cross-sectional and longitudinal data on womens status and inequalities between men and women with other existing indicators. Section III discusses the results in the following order: 1) cross-sectional patterns in womens status; 2) trends in womens status; 3) cross-sectional patterns in inequality between men and women; 4) trends in inequality between men and women; and 5) conclusion. Finally section IV presents an overall discussion of the findings of the whole longitudinal evaluation.

Empowerment without Antagonism: A Case for Reformulation of Women’s Empowerment Approach

The rise of gender sensibility is one of the distinguishing features of our times. It has taken hold of human imagination like never before. For all practical purposes, the concern for gender equity has graduated to the level of a policy objective. More importantly, it has begun to dominate public discourse overshadowing vital concerns for other kinds of inequalities such as of castes and classes. This is proof enough of the agility of gender concern today. Two perspectives have emerged in the contemporary discourse on the modalities of gender equity: women's development and women's empowerment, and in that order. It is Ester Boserup's pioneering work Women's Role in Economic Development (1970) which paved way to the rise of women's development perspective. The development strategy, however, has come under severe interrogation not only for its failure to deliver its promise but also for working against the interests of womankind. Consequently, the decade of 90s has witnessed the rise of women's empowerment perspective which shot into prominence at Beijing Conference. Lately, skeptical notes have begun to appear about the soundness of women's empowerment perspective, necessitating its dispassionate appraisal. Articulating the same trend, this paper seeks to review the prevailing paradigm of women's empowerment, which is spelt out in section II. The main argument advanced here is that in its present form, it betrays a pronounced western-ethnocentric bias, places too heavy a reliance on conscientization as the key strategy of women's empowerment, and above all, is marked by a measure of antagonism against man. For the same reasons, it is not likely to go too far towards achieving the objective of gender equality. Hence the need to rethink it. To substantiate this argument, the paper is organised into five sections. The first section takes a critical look at women's development perspective as a backdrop to the rise of women's empowerment approach. The second section carries a S. L. Sharma, Professor of Sociology (Retd.), lives at 739, Sector 2, Panchkula, Haryana

SHORT REVIEWS

Books reviewed in this article: Tom Athanasiou, Divided Planet: The Ecology of Rich and Poor Ester Boserup, My Professional Life and Publications 1929–1998 Joachim von Braun, Tesfaye Tekxu, and Patrick Webb, Famine in Africa: Causes, Responses, and Prevention John Brotchie, Peter Newton, Peter Hall, and John Dickey (eds.), East West Perspectives on 21st Century Urban Development: Sustainable Eastern and Western Cities in the New Millennium Alex de Sherbinin and Victoria Dompka (eds.), Water and Population Dynamics: Case Studies and Policy Implications Pamela Feldman‐Savelsberg, Plundered Kitchens, Empty Wombs: Threatened Reproduction and Identity in the Cameroon Grassfields Peter H. Gleick, The World's Water 1998–1999: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources Inge Kaul, Isabelle Grunberg, and Marc A. Stern (eds.), Global Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century Patricia W. Lunneborg, The Chosen Lives of Childfree Men Thomas Gale Moore, Climate of Fear: Why We Shouldn't Worry About Global Warming United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 1998 Revision. Volume I: Comprehensive Tables; Volume II: The Sex and Age Distribution of the World Population US Agency for International Development and US Department of Commerce, World Population Profile: 1998, with a Special Chapter Focusing on HIV I AIDS in the Developing World

Female Education and Development in AsiaWomen, Education, and Development in Asia: Cross-National Perspectives. Grace C. L. MakGirls' Schooling, Women's Autonomy and Fertility Change in South Asia. Roger Jeffery , Alaka M. Basu

Momentous changes in scholarship and the global economy have altered our understanding of women's relationships to development ever since Ester Boserup's pathbreaking 1970 study of the productive role of women in Asian and African economies. The market as a producer of rational efficiency has been revealed as an impoverished and dangerous model for development. Structural adjustment lending devoted to social issues has climbed over the last dozen years from 5 percent to over 50 percent. As development has been reconceptualized, women have been transformed from its victims into its magic bullets. In fact, the 1990s may well go down in the development annals as the decade when the world was banking on women. The two studies under review present a timely, multidimensional, and international discussion about what it means for women's daily lives to say that they are no longer invisible within nor peripheral to economic analysis and development policy and practice. In essence, the authors inquire: What should education do for women? What should women do with education?

A Theory of Preindustrial Population Dynamics Demography, Economy, and Well‐Being in Malthusian Systems

This paper presents a simple model of preindustrial population dynamics, one that brings together the theoretical insights of Thomas Robert Malthus and Ester Boserup. Central to the model is the concept of well‐being, which refers to those aspects of physical condition that influence an individual's capacity to survive and reproduce. Changes in the mean and variance in well‐being are modeled, first, under a fixed system of food production and, second, in the face of subsistence change. Among other things, the model suggests that the long‐term effects of economic change on the distribution of well‐being are negligible, although both the mean and variance are likely to increase temporarily in the short run. The model is used to explore several issues of enduring importance to demographic anthropology, including the nature of population regulation, the relationship between population pressure and economic change, and the demographic consequences of the transition from hunting and gathering to settled agricul...

Increasing Returns and Intensification: A Reprise on Ester Boserup's Model of Agricultural Growth

The dynamics of Ester Boserup's model of intensification of ``primitive'' (non‐chemical, non‐mechanized) agriculture have been worked out in three papers by Darity, Pryor and Maurer, and Salehi‐Isfahani under conditions where techniques generating higher levels of food production require longer hours of work. But Boserup's theory suggests that continued intensification can lead to productivity increases in food production. Here the long run implications for agricultural productivity are explored when increasing returns evolve from Boserup's intensification process. Variations in the dynamics of a Boserupian economy are considered under different patterns of response to falling incomes and changing work requirements.

Typological Schemes and Agricultural Change: Beyond Boserup in Precolonial South India [and Comments and Reply

L'auteur etudie, grâce aux donnees archeologiques, historiques et paleobotaniques issues des environs de la cite de Vijayanagara (Inde meridionale) de l'epoque pre-coloniale recente (v. 1300-1700 apr. J.-C.), la multiplicite des strategies de production et d'intensification agricoles. L'article est suivi de plusieurs commentaires et d'une reponse de l'auteur

Book Reviews

Book reviewed in this article: Foreign Trade Reforms and Development Strategy. Edited by Jean‐Marc Fontaine Diverse Paths of Economic Development. By Richard Pomfret Making a Difference: NGOs and Development in a Changing World. Edited by Michael Edwards and David Hulme Institutional Development & NGOs in Africa: Policy Perspectives for European Development Agencies. By Alan Fowler, with Piers Campbell and Brian Pratt Poverty, Natural Resources, and Public Policy in Central America. By Sheldon Annis et al Structural Adjustment and African Women Farmers. Edited by Christina H. Gladwin The Second Economy in Tanzania. By T. L. Maliyamkono and M. S. D. Bagachwa The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation‐State. By Basil Davidson The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power. Edited by Wolfgang Sachs The Poverty of Nations: A Guide to the Debt Crisis – From Argentina to Zaire. Edited by Elmar Altvater, Kurt Hubner, Jochen Lorentzen and Raúl Rojas Desertified Grasslands: Their Biology and Management. Edited by G. P. Chapman South‐South Trade in Global Development. By Elizabeth Parsan Women and the Environment. By Annabel Rodda Practising Development: Social Science Perspectives. Edited by Johan Pottier Structural Adjustment and the African Farmer. Edited by Alex Duncan and John Howell Promise and Power: the Life and Times of Robert McNamara. By Deborah Shapley The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure. By Ester Boserup

Economic Growth, Peasant Marginalization, and the Sexual Division of Labor in Early Twentieth-Century China

In recent decades economic development theory has increasingly focused on the question of women and work. At the same time, development agencies and planners have attempted to integrate programs for improvement of the economic and social position of women into larger strategies aimed at increasing agricultural and industrial growth in the Third World. Two implicit assumptions have formed the basis for many of these programs and the theory from which they arise: first, that processes of economic growth and development associated with market expansion are benevolent; and second, that the primary problem for Third World women has been insufficient participation in these processes. Although these assumptions continue to undergird development planning, they have not gone unchallenged. Indeed, in the two decades since Ester Boserup's (1970) pioneering work first documented that both planned and unplanned market expansion often resulted in more work but no improvement-or even decline-in the condition of rural

Oro Blanco: Cotton, Technology, and Family Labor in Nineteenth-Century Argentina

Cotton growing and textile production in the northern regions of newly independent Argentina, as in many other parts of Latin America still relatively unaffected by the industrial revolution, were linked to the gender division of labor and the type of landholdings found in agrarian societies. As early as 1970 Ester Boserup pointed out the divergent roles that women and children would play in societies based upon extensive properties farmed or ranched by slave or hired help as compared with smaller, more intensive farms and ranches. She, like many others, however, presumed that wage labor, large scale agriculture, and ranching dominated the Latin American landscape, and she emphasized the role of women compared to other family members in rural production.

Have Men Become the Weaker Sex? Changing Life Situations in Kisii District, Kenya

The ‘discovery’ of third-world women and their situation followed in the wake of research by feminists in western societies. In the late 1960s, Ester Boserup documented that especially African rural women had experienced a major increase in their workload during this century; they had become the main producers not only of subsistence food but also of cash crops.

Ester Boserup: Economic and Demographic Relationships in Development

Ester Boserup: Economic and Demographic Relationships in Development

Feature reviews

Nelson Mandela is free Higher than Hope: the authorised biography of Nelson Mandela. Fatima Meer, London: Hamish Hamilton. 1990. 288pp. £15.99hb Pre‐Tiananmen perspectives Reforming the Revolution? China in transition. Edited by Robert Benewick and Paul Wingrove, London: Macmillan. 1988. 264pp. £30.00hb/£8.99pb Transforming China's Economy in the Eighties. Edited by Stephen Feuchtwang, Athar Hussain and Thierry Pairault, London: Zed. 1988. Vol 1: 256pp. £29.95hb/£9.95pb. Vol 2: 256pp. £27.95hb China's Regional Development. Edited by David S Goodman, London: Routledge for the Institute of International Affairs. 1989. 208pp. £35.00hb China at Forty: mid‐life crisis. Edited by David S Goodman and Gerald Segal, Oxford: Clarendon. 1989. 178pp. £9.95pb The Political Economy of Chinese Socialism. Mark Selden, New York: M E Sharpe. 1989. 224pp. S15.95pb One Step Ahead in China: Guandong under reform. Ezra F Vogel, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1989. 244pp. £23.95hb Gender, development and modernity Woman's Role in Economic Development. Ester Boserup, London: Earthscan. 1989. 283pp. £6.95pb Staying Alive: women, ecology and development. Vandana Shiva, London: Zed. 1988. 224pp. £29.95pb/£8.95pb Women's Asia. Yayori Matsui, Translated from the Japanese by Mizuko Matsuda, London: Zed. 1989. 172pp. £26.95hb/£7.95pb Structures of Patriarchy: the state, the community and the household. Edited by Bina Agarwal, London: Zed. 1988. 254pp. £28.95hb/£8.95pb We Were Making History: women and the Telangana Uprising. Edited by Stree Shakti Sanghatana, London: Zed. 1989. 290pp. £29.95hb/£8.95pb Natural Rebels: a social history of enslaved black women in Barbados. Hilary McD Beckles, London: Zed. 1989. 197pp. £29.95hb/£8.95pb You Can't Drown the Fire: Latin American women writing in exile. Edited by Alicia Partnoy, London: Virago. 1988. 258pp. £6.50pb Plotting Women: gender and representation in Mexico. Jean Franco, London: Verso. 1989. 235pp. £19.95hb Peru and the informal economy The Other Path: the invisible revolution in the Third World. Hernando de Soto, London: I B Tauris. 1989. 271pp. £14.95hb

Sources of Women's Power and Status among the Urban Poor in Contemporary Brazil

The conclusion of the majority of recent social science research and theory is that capitalist development has a negative effect on the position of women in developing societies.' The ascendency of the view of development as a negative force for women began with the 1970 publication of Ester Boserup's Women's Role in Economic Development, in which it was argued that the expansion of capitalism has eroded the status and power enjoyed by women in traditional societies.2 By the 1982 publication of Jane Jaquette's Women and Modernization Theory: A Decade of Feminist Theory, predictions that modernization would improve the status of women had been thoroughly discredited.3

Collective Action and the "Representation" of African Women: A Liberian Case Study

For scholars working on cross-cultural research from a feminist perspective, West Africa has long held a particular fascination. Extensively documented by Annie M.D. Lebeuf as early as 1963 and most recently noted by Niara Sudarkasa in 1986, women across continent have been, queen-mothers; queen-sisters; princesses, chiefs, and holders of other offices in towns and villages; occasional warriors; and, in one well-known case, that of Lovedu, supreme monarch.' More significantly, both state-structured and nonstate societies of West Africa appear to lack clearly defined separation between public and private spheres that limit women's political participation in other agriculturally based communities around world.2 Both patrilineal and matrilineal kinship systems recognize public and ritual responsibilities of women as members of descent groups and acknowledge value of their labor in farming economies described by Ester Boserup.3 Additionally, political structures of these societies provide opportunities not only for queens, or women fortunate enough to have been born to high-ranking lineages, but also open possibilities for association membership, elected office, and formal political action to all adult women. Kamene Okonjo has characterized parallel sets of female and male offices and associations which result as the dual-sex political system.4 In this paper, I will discuss relationship between this dualsex form of organization and equally striking tendency of West African women to unite in collective action. Whether they are taking on a local chief or apparatus of a colonial or postcolonial state, West African women seem to demonstrate a repugnance for

Institutional and Environmental Constraints to Agricultural Intensification

ESTER BOSERUP HAS ARGUED THAT SOCIETIES across the world have responded to increasing land scarcity in a strikingly similar and predictable manner. These societies have moved from shifting cultivation (land-extensive) systems to sedentary (land-intensive) cultivation systems. This process of agricultural intensification is usually associated with the adoption of technologies for soil fertility maintenance, labor savings, and land investments. During the early stages of intensification these technologies, such as manure use, animal draft power, and the like, are usually farmer generated. Scienceand industry-based technical change becomes important only under higher farming intensities and where populations are growing extremely rapidly. While examples abound of the population and market demand-induced productivity growth through intensification, there are other examples where intensification has led to reduced labor productivity. Declining productivity has sometimes been accompanied by soil depletion, exhaustion, and even abandonment (National Research Council, 1986). The magnitude and severity of the problem depend on the rate of population growth, the extent of institutional rigidities, and the nature of the agroclimatic environment (climate, soil type, and slope characteristics of the region). This essay reviews and synthesizes case study evidence from Africa and Asia on the institutional and environmental constraints to successful intensification. The following are identified as the major causes of the unsuccessful transition to sustainable pennanent cultivation systems: (1) Institutional innovations, especially the evolution of long-term rights to land, although induced by population growth, often tend to occur at a slower pace. (2) Despite secure longterm tenure to land, free rider problems may prevent collective action for making watershed-level investments to prevent land degradation. (3) In marginal environments, the returns to preventive land investments may be low. And (4)

Latin American Women Workers in Transition: Sexual Division of the Labor Force in Mexico and Colombia in the Textile Industry

When the cottage textile industries in 18th century England were moved to urban factories, women and children also left their private existence and moved into public work in the mills. The situation was similar in Mexico and Colombia when their factories started to produce cloth, but after an urban labor force developed, men replaced women in the plants. In developed nations, women still dominate the textile work force, especially when products compete on a world market. Few studies have attempted to analyze the difference historically as the labor force divides into sexual roles, either in advanced or underdeveloped nations. Although Ester Boserup's study of third world women indicates that this transition occurs (in one direction) when mechanization advances to replace manual or simple tasks, lately her conclusions have been questioned as technologically advanced industries such as computers have hired women rather than men to assemble instruments. The textile industry has often been viewed as a force in the beginning of industrialization and can illustrate how women are used as a transition element as they first move from private home activities into public roles in the factories and then as plants become more capitalintensive, they are again returned to their private space. At first their willingness to accept low wages in the mills left the men performing agricultural labor. As promotion of industrialization brought an urban labor force into existence, a variety of social and economic pressures removed them from participation in production of goods. Their reserve labor remained available for other functions as the need arose.

Latin American Women Workers in Transition: Sexual Division of the Labor Force in Mexico and Colombia in the Textile Industry

When the cottage textile industries in 18th century England were moved to urban factories, women and children also left their private existence and moved into public work in the mills. The situation was similar in Mexico and Colombia when their factories started to produce cloth, but after an urban labor force developed, men replaced women in the plants. In developed nations, women still dominate the textile work force, especially when products compete on a world market. Few studies have attempted to analyze the difference historically as the labor force divides into sexual roles, either in advanced or underdeveloped nations. Although Ester Boserup's study of third world women indicates that this transition occurs (in one direction) when mechanization advances to replace manual or simple tasks, lately her conclusions have been questioned as technologically advanced industries such as computers have hired women rather than men to assemble instruments. The textile industry has often been viewed as a force in the beginning of industrialization and can illustrate how women are used as a transition element as they first move from private home activities into public roles in the factories and then as plants become more capitalintensive, they are again returned to their private space. At first their willingness to accept low wages in the mills left the men performing agricultural labor. As promotion of industrialization brought an urban labor force into existence, a variety of social and economic pressures removed them from participation in production of goods. Their reserve labor remained available for other functions as the need arose.

Population and technological change: A study of long‐term trends, by Ester Boserup. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 255 pp. Price: $7.95

Journal of Policy Analysis and ManagementVolume 3, Issue 3 p. 474-474 Book Note Population and technological change: A study of long-term trends, by Ester Boserup. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 255 pp. Price: $7.95 First published: Spring 1984 https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.4050030341AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume3, Issue3Spring 1984Pages 474-474 RelatedInformation

Agricultural Development and Demographic Change: A Generalization of the Boserup Model

Previous articleNext article No AccessAgricultural Development and Demographic Change: A Generalization of the Boserup ModelWarren Robinson, and Wayne SchutjerWarren Robinson Search for more articles by this author , and Wayne Schutjer Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Economic Development and Cultural Change Volume 32, Number 2Jan., 1984 Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/451389 Views: 50Total views on this site Citations: 29Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1984 The University of ChicagoPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Richard E. Bilsborrow Population and Agricultural Change, (Jan 2022): 375–419.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76433-3_18James W. Wood The Biodemography of Subsistence Farming, 10 (Apr 2020).https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139519700Juan Manuel Torres-Rojo, Carlos Alberto Francisco-Cruz, Juan Francisco Islas-Aguirre, Grodecz Alfredo Ramírez-Fuentes, Leonardo Pérez-Sosa A scale invariant model for the expansion of agricultural land and government spending on the agricultural sector, Land Use Policy 92 (Mar 2020): 104438.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104438Li Jiang, Zhihui Li Urbanization and the Change of Fertilizer Use Intensity for Agricultural Production in Henan Province, Sustainability 8, no.22 (Feb 2016): 186.https://doi.org/10.3390/su8020186Luis Pacheco-Cobos, Mark N. Grote, Douglas J. Kennett, Bruce Winterhalder Population and Environmental Correlates of Maize Yields in Mesoamerica: a Test of Boserup’s Hypothesis in the Milpa, Human Ecology 43, no.44 (Aug 2015): 559–576.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-015-9771-zSonja Aagesen, Suzana Dragićević EARLI: A Complex Systems Approach for Modeling Land-use Change and Settlement Growth in Early Agricultural Societies, (Nov 2013): 119–139.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01285-8_9Karlheinz Erb, Maria Niedertscheider, Jan Philipp Dietrich, Christoph Schmitz, Peter H. Verburg, Martin Rudbeck Jepsen, Helmut Haberl Conceptual and Empirical Approaches to Mapping and Quantifying Land-Use Intensity, (Aug 2014): 61–86.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8678-2_5Li Jiang, Xiangzheng Deng, Karen C. Seto The impact of urban expansion on agricultural land use intensity in China, Land Use Policy 35 (Nov 2013): 33–39.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.04.011Niek Koning, Martin K van Ittersum Will the world have enough to eat?, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 1, no.11 (Oct 2009): 77–82.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2009.07.005N.B.J. Koning, M.K. Van Ittersum, G.A. Becx, M.A.J.S. Van Boekel, W.A. Brandenburg, J.A. Van Den Broek, J. Goudriaan, G. Van Hofwegen, R.A. Jongeneel, J.B. Schiere, M. Smies Long-term global availability of food: continued abundance or new scarcity?, NJAS: Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 55, no.33 (Jun 2021): 229–292.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1573-5214(08)80001-2David L. Carr, Laurel Suter, Alisson Barbieri Population Dynamics and Tropical Deforestation: State of the Debate and Conceptual Challenges, Population and Environment 27, no.11 (Feb 2006): 89–113.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-005-0014-xGlenn Davis Stone, Christian E. Downum Non-Boserupian Ecology and Agricultural Risk: Ethnic Politics and Land Control in the Arid Southwest, American Anthropologist 101, no.11 (Mar 1999): 113–128.https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1999.101.1.113John L. Pender Population growth, agricultural intensification, induced innovation and natural resource sustainability: An application of neoclassical growth theory, Agricultural Economics 19, no.1-21-2 (Sep 1998): 99–112.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.1998.tb00519.xNadia Cuffaro Population growth and agriculture in poor countries: A review of theoretical issues and empirical evidence, World Development 25, no.77 (Jul 1997): 1151–1163.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(97)00025-9James A. Robinson, T.N. Srinivasan Chapter 21 Long-term consequences of population growth: Technological change, natural resources, and the environment, (Jan 1997): 1175–1298.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-003X(97)80013-X Kathleen D. Morrison , Gary M. Feinman , Linda M. Nicholas , Thegn N. 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Doolittle Intermittent Use and Agricultural Change on Marginal Lands: The Case of Smallholders in Eastern Sonora, Mexico, Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 70, no.22 (Aug 2017): 255–266.https://doi.org/10.1080/04353684.1988.11879570 Bibliography, (May 2014): 235–252.https://doi.org/10.13109/9783666251887.235Djavad Salehi-Isfahani Technology and preferences in the Boserup model of agricultural growth, Journal of Development Economics 28, no.22 (Mar 1988): 175–191.https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(88)90057-0Nancy Birdsall Chapter 12 Economic approaches to population growth, (Jan 1988): 477–542.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1573-4471(88)01015-0 Djavad Salehi-Isfahani On the Generalization of the Boserup Model: Some Clarifications, Economic Development and Cultural Change 35, no.44 (Oct 2015): 875–881.https://doi.org/10.1086/451626